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Class _Ci:£_:6.&__ 
Book. • C \ A- ? 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSITS 



COMPANION 



SSi' 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY; 



DESIGNED AS AN 



AID TO THE TEACHER IN HIS RECITATIONS AND REYIEWa 



BY B. N. COMINGS, M.D., 

AUTHOE OF "principles OF PHYSIOLOGY," " CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY," AND 

"PRESERVATION OF HEALTH*," AND PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, 

0HKMI8TEY, AND NATURAL HISTORY.^IN THE CON- 

NECTIOUT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL* 






\ 




NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 



846 «S5 848 BKOADWAY. 

M.DCCaLlT. 



^' 



en 



h''- 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by 

B. N. COMINGS, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut 



PEEFACE, 



The following pages have been compiled at the sug- 
gestion of Professor Jenks, Principal of Pierce Academy, 
Mass., and are designed to aid teachers in conducting re- 
citations in the Class-Book of Physiology. 

Professor Jenks has made thorough trial of this method 
of conducting recitations in other departments of science, 
and has found it eminently successful. The manner of 
using the Companion, and the advantages of this mode 
of study, will be found over his own signature in the Intro- 
duction. 

As Professor Jenks has no personal interest in the 
Companion, except in common with other teachers who 
may use it, he is entitled to the thanks of the author, and 
of all who may hereafter be aided in their labors by his 
voluntary suggestions. 

B. K COMINGS. . 

New Britain, Mzy, 1854. 



INTEODUCTION. 



SuGaESTiONS as to the best method of conducting reci- 
tations in the Class-Book of Physiology, by the aid of the 
Companion : 

1st. Let it be considered in what time the circum- 
stances of the school will require the class to complete 
the book, or any definite part of it, and make the advance 
lesson of sufficient length to accomplish the object in the 
given time. 

2d. Let the previous lesson be a constant review. 

3d. After a certain number of recitations, which may 
be determined by the teacher, according to the maturity 
of the class, commence a re-review of all the portions gone 
over. 

4th. Let the pupil be required, in his first examination 
of the advance lesson, to peruse carefully every portion 
of the text without regard to the questions at the bot- 
tom of the page. 

5th. "Companion" in hand, let the pupil recite the 
lesson, and illustrate all the diagrams, without a word from 
the teacher^ and with eyes upon the question, or topical sug- 
gestions, after the style of repeating a story to a friend, in- 
stead of having the questions asked by the teacher, or even 
asking them himself. Further illustration may be drawn 
from the pupil at the close of his portion of the recitation, 
according to the skill and discretion of the teacher. 




b INTRODUCTION. 

6tli. Let the teacher carefully avoid all appearance 
of routine in calling upon the several pupils, that, by only 
naming the scholar to recite, without hinting where the 
last pupil closed his recitation, the most undivided at- 
tention will be elicited, of necessity, from every member of 
the class. 

7th. To avoid the liability, even in the slightest de- 
gree, of localizing too much by such constant eye reference 
on the part of the pupil, let the teacher hear the re-reviews 
occasionally, by suggesting the topics himself, or by calling 
only for the illustration of the diagrams. 

8th. At the examination, let the names of the pupils 
be put into a vase, on separate slips of jjaper, and drawn 
out as a topic is called for by one of the audience or examin- 
ing committee, or teacher himself— the pupil with the 
" Companion '' in hand, proceeding at once to present as 
in a continued narrative, his knowledge of the subject. 

9 th. Where apparatus or specimens are used in illus- 
tration, let the advance lesson always be illustrated the 
day previous, that the pupil may at once commence the 
investigation of the lesson understandingly, he not being 
expected to make new discoveries in the science by the 
bent of his own genius, but only (while a pupil) to ac- 
quaint himself with the discoveries of others. 

ADVANTAGES OF THIS MODE OF STUDY. 

Among the advantages arising from this mode of studying and Jiear^ 
ing the lessons, are the following : — 

1. It secures an accurate examination of every part of the text, 
and accustoms the pupil to relate his views of the subject connected- 
ly, without leading questions to be answered only in monosyllables. 

2. It is an immense saving of time on the part of the class, and of 
throat on the part of the teachei — the question or suggestions of the 
topic being given to the pupil by the medium of his own eye. 

3. It saves the labor of drawing the diagrams on the blackboard, 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

in order to separate them from the text for recitation use, especially 
in reviews, however frequent thej may be. 

4. It secures all the advantages of the purely topical method of 
conducting a recitation, without the unnatural forcing of the memory 
to retain a series of heads, oftentimes as disconnected as a long series 
of abstract numbers consecutively arranged. 

Finally, it is the method to which the writer of these suggestions 
was at first gradually compelled to resort, as his classes in the physical 
sciences, from numbering ten or twelve pupils, began to number from 
one hundred to one hundred and fifty, and even more during some 
terms in the year. But, after an experience of several years' adoption 
of it in all the physical sciences taught in his school (in which, on 
account of the size of the classes, it is his only possible method of 
conducting a recitation), he has become so thoroughly convinced of its 
utility, that it is employed throughout his school, so far as the nature 
of the study, and the arrangement of the text-books, renders it prac- 
ticable ; and with the full conviction that it is worthy the consideration 
of his fellow-teachers, he submits the plan, with the distinct avowal 
that he has no other interest in placing it before the public, than simply 
to discharge a sacred duty arising from the mutual obligation of all 
teachers to give to each other the benefit of their experience. 

J. W. P. JENKS, Principal of Pierce Academy, 

MiDDLEBORo', Mass., Dbc, I2th, 1853. 



QUESTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



INTKODUCTION. 



1. What are essential to the existence of all living bodies ? What 
is the matter of which such bodies are composed called ? 2. What is 
the matter found in minerals called 1 3. Do minerals grow ? How ? 
Are they nourished ? 4. What is essential to the completeness of a 
plant or animal ? Can any organ maintain an independent existence ? 
5. Upon what parts is a plant dependent for its vitality 1 Upon what 
parts is an animal dependent ? 

6. In what conditions may we study organized matter 1 7. What 
science is derived from the first, and what from the second method ? 
8. With what does Physiology make us acquainted ? 9. What does 
Anatomy teach 1 10. How are Anatomy and Physiology naturally 
divided? 11. How are animal Anatomy and Physiology divided? 
12. To what orders of animals are Comparative Anatomy and Physio- 
logy devoted? 14. Why is Physiology divided into Comparative and 
Human ? 

CHARACTEBISTICS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 

16. How are plants and animals distinguished from unorganized 
bodies? How are plants nourished? 17. How are animals nourish- 
ed? What do animals always possess? 18. What functions are 
peculiar to animals alone ? 19. What is said of the period of existence 
of plants and animals ? 20. What is the natural age of man ? How 
does it vary in different communities ? In proportion to what are com- 
munities and individuals long-lived? 

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES. 

21. How are the substances which compose animal bodies divided ? 
22. How many pounds of fluid may be drawn from the body of a 
man weighing one hundred and fifty pounds ? How can the weight 
of the body be farther reduced? 23. When are the fluids most 
abundant and when least abundant? 25. How many elementary 
1* 



10 



COIMPANION TO 



substances are there in the human body? 26. Which are the four 
essential elements ? 27. What are the solid portions of the body called 1 





Fig. 3. 



28. Of what are the tissues made 
up? 29. What are granules ? Where 
are granules found ? 30. What are 
nuclei ? 31. What are cells ? How 
are cells developed into tissues? 
32. What are tubules? 33. What 
are filaments ? 




Fig. 2. 



34. What are fibres ? 35. What is a tissue ? 36. What is an 
organ? 37. What is an apparatus ?- 38. What is a system? 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



II 



40. "What tissue is the primary form of all others ? How is the 
cellular tissue formed? How is the cellular tissue sometimes in- 
flated 1 41. Where is the cellular tissue found ? "What is its chief use ? 
42. What different names have been given to the cellular tissue ? 

CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 

43. How is the process of nutrition carried on in organized be- 
ings ? What is this fluid called in plants ?— in animals ? 44. What 
is the color of the blood in insects ? — in the mammalia, birds and rep- 
tiles ? 45. How does the blood coagulate 1 46. Of what is the serum 
composed ? 47. Of what tissues does albumen form a large propor- 
tion ? What are some of the characteristics of albumen 1 48. What 
proportion of the blood is water 1 What circumstances influence this 
portion of the blood 1 



M 





Fig. 4. 




Fig. 5. 




Fig. 6. 
50. What is the color of 



49. Of what is the clot composed? 
fibrin when pure? What is its peculiar property? In what is it 



12 



COMPANION to 



found? How does the coagulation of the blood fonn an imperfect 
analysis of the blood? 51, What is the color and form of the blood 
discs ? What is the size of the blood discs in different animals '? 





Fig. a 




Fig. 9. 

What the number 1 Under what circumstances is the iron found 
to be diminished ? What is the remedy in such cases ? In what 
vital process do the blood discs perform an important office ? 62. What 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGT. 



13 



elements is the blood found to possess by chemical analysis ? What 
does the blood carry to every part of the system? What does the 
blood take up and carry ofi'l 53, What is the circulating apparatus ? 
What the circulation 7 54. What is the condition of the circulatory 
apparatus in different orders of animals 1 

55. How is the blood sent to the various parts of the body in in- 
sects? 56. How in the Crustacea? 57. What is the circulating ap- 
paratus in fishes ? 58. What in reptiles ? 59. Describe the heart, as 
found in mammalia and in birds. 60. What is the form of the double 
heart? Where is the heart situated in man ? 

61. How is the heart protected from friction against other organs ? 
Describe the pericardium. 62. How is the heart divided? Which 
half has the thickest and strongest walls ? Why are the walls of 
the left half thicker and stronger than the right ? How do the walls 
of the auricle compare with those of the ventricle ? What is the office 
of the auricle ? 

63. How are the auricles and ventri- 
cles separated from each other? How 
are the valves attached to the walls of 
the ventricle? 64. Describe the semi- 
lunar valves. 65. What consequences fol- 
low disease of the valves ? 66, What ves- 
sels are the channels of communication 
between the heart and the various parts of 
the body ? 67. Describe the arteries. 68. 
What is the use of the external coat of the 
artery? 69. Of what is the middle or 
fibrous coat composed? 70. What ad- 
vantages are derived from the elasticity of 
the middle coat? How is hemorrhage 
sometimes arrested in the smaller ar- 
teries ? 

What is usually necessary to arrest hemorrhage from the large 
arteries ? How may the contractions of the divided end of an artery 
be increased? 71. Describe the internal coat. 72. How do the ex- 
tremities of the arteries finally terminate ? How is the danger of ob- 
struction in the large trunks obviated ? 

73. Of how many coats are the veins composed ? What is their 
structure ? How do the veins commence ? How does the velocity of 
the blood in the veins compare with that of the arteries ? What is 
said of the valves in the veins ? 




14 



COMPANION TO 



74. Describe the capillaries. What functions are performed 
through the capillaries ? 75. Describe the course of the blood in the 
circulation of man. What changes take place in the capillaries ? 76. 
What is the course of the blood from the right ventricle ? 77. Of 




h - 




Fig. 12. 



Fig. 13. 



how much blood does the heart of a man in middle age empty itself at 
each contraction ? What is the amount of the propelling force of the 
heart? 





Fig. 14 



Fig. 15. 



How many times does the heart contract in a minute ? How long 
a time will twentY-ei,2:ht pounds of blood require to pass through the 
heart according to this estimate ? 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY, 



15 



78. How long a time will be necessary, if we form our opinion from 
the rapidity with which poisons are transmitted ? 79. What is the 
frequency of the heart's contractions during the first year*? — the 
seventh? — in middle life? — in old age? What other circumstances 
affect the frequency of the heart's action ? What temper of mind is 
conducive to long life ? 

RESPIRATION. 



80. What is respiration ? What is said of the necessity of respira- 
tion in plants and in animals ? 81. How does the process of respira- 
tion take place in plants ? Of what is carbonic acid composed ? How 
do plants dispose of the oxygen ? — how the carbonic acid ? 82. How 
do animals dispose of the oxygen ? — how the carbon ? How do plants 
affect the air ? 83. What is 
the necessary condition for 
the function of respiration in 
animals ? 

How ■ is this principle 
modified in different groups 
of animals ? 84. How does 
respiration take place in the 
hydra ? What is this kind 
of respiration called? In 
what other orders of animals 
is this kind of respiration 
found ? What is said of its 
importance in cold-bloodea 
animals ?— in the frog ? 85. 
In how many large groups 
may all the animals which 
possess a special organ of 
respiration be divided ? 
What modification in each 
of these ? 86. Describe the 
respiratory organs in the 
lowest group of water- 
breathing animals. 

What is said of the form 
and attachment of the frin- 
ges? 87. Describe the re- 
Fig. 16. 




16 



COMPANION TO 



spirator J organs of fishes. 88. The gills of fishes are made up of what ? 
How do the fibres preserve their shape ? What are distributed on the 
surface of the fibres 1 What is said of the extent of this surface ex- 
posed to the action of the air absorbed from the water 1 How great 
is it in the skate ? Does the water itself act on the membrane ? 
What does ? How are fishes affected bj being kept in water which 
has no access to fresh air 1 

What takes place when they are removed from the water to the air ? 
What is the cause of death ? 89. How is air conveyed to the circula- 
ting fluids of insects ? Describe the air-tubes of insects. 90. What 
do the highest group of air-breathing animals possess ? In what ani- 
mal is the lung seen in its simplest condition ? 91. Describe the 
respiratory organs of a frog — 92. a turtle. 

93. Describe the respira- 
tory organs of a bird. How 
do birds compare with other 
animals in the frequency of 
their respirations? What 
special benefit do birds de 
rive from the large amount 
of air contained in their sacs 
and bones ? 94. Upon what 
does the capacity of the lung 
depend 1 In what group of 
animals are the air cells 
most numerous ? 95. How 
many air cells are there in the human lungs? How is each air cell 
constructed ? 

96. Of what is the whole substance of the lungs mainly made up ? 
97. How are the lungs supplied with air? Describe the larynx. How 
is the larynx situated, and what is it sometimes called ? 98. What 
other use has the larynx besides to give passage to the air ? 99. How 
is the trachea formed? 100. How does the trachea divide on entering 
the chest ? How do the bronchi divide ? 101. Where are the lungs 
placed in man ? 

How may we judge of the size of the lungs in different individuals ? 
102. Describe the chest. 103. How are the walls of the thorax formed ? 
104. Describe the ribs — 105. the diaphragm. 106. How is the internal 
surface of the chest lined ? — and how is it kept moist ? 

107. How is the cavity of the chest increased and diminished in 
size ? 108. What is the position of the ribs and diaphragm when the 




.Fi2. 17. 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



17 



respiratory organs are at rest ? What change takes place in the act 
of respiration ? 109. How is the chest filled when it is enlarged ? 




Fig. 19. 

By what organs is the active 
process of respiration performed ? 
110. Hew is respiration carried 
on when the ribs are confined 1 
How when the diaphragm ? 111. 
What law of our organization 
do these parts teach us ? 

When the action of the re- 
spiratory organs is in any way 
restrained, what is the effect on 
respiration? 112. What is the 



18 COMPANION TO 

number of respirations in adnlts 7 How is it affected by exercise or by 
excitement? 113. How much air is taken into the lungs at each re- 
spiration ? How much air will pass through the lungs in an hour ? — 
in a day ? 114. How is the air changed in passing through the lungs ? 
115. What change takes place in the blood during this process T 116. 
How much blood is subjected to this renovating process every minute ? 
What is exhaled from the blood ? 

117. If the lungs be diseased or the air be impure, what is the effect ? 

118. What is the effect of sleeping in poorly- ventilated apartments ? 

119. How are public assemblies affected by impure air ? 120. What 
is said of the importance of a due supply of pure air ? With what 
should every apartment we occupy be provided ? 121. What propor- 
tion of our race are scourged with lung diseases '? 122. How should 
every room be ventilated ? 

ANIMAL HEAT. 

123. What relation has the power of maintaining animal heat to 
the process of respiration ? 124. How does the respiration and tem- 
perature of birds compare with other animals ? What is the tempera- 
ture in the mammalia ? — in man ? What is it in fevers ? What during 
sleep ? 125. What is the temperature and respiration of young ani- 
mals ? How do they bear exposure to cold ? 126. What are those 
animals called which possess the power of maintaining a uniform tem- 
perature '? What are those called which do not possess this power ? 
What order of animals are cold-blooded 1 127. What is the tempera- 
ture of the snail ? What of fishes ? What is the temperature of 
reptiles ? 128. What remarkable provision exists in some cold-blooded 
animals for preserving life at a low temperature ? What examples are 
given ? How is this fact explained ? 

129. What does a comparative view of the process of respiration, in 
connection with the development of animal heat, show ? With what 
does the carbon of the blood combine ? What is formed by this pro- 
cess ? How does it compare with combustion? 130. Are the lungs 
the only source of animal heat? What other source is there? 131. 
What causes . affect the health of the lungs ? When and where do 
diseases of the lungs prevail most ? 132. What is necessary to guard 
against lung diseases ? What care should be exercised in regard to 
clothing ? 



TOPICS FOR REVIEW. . 

What are the characteristics of inorganic and organic matter? 
Define Physiology — Anatomy — Comparative Anatomy and Physiology 
— Human Anatomy and Physiology. Why is Physiology divided into 
Comparative and Huijian ? How are plants distinguished from unor- 
ganized bodies ? Describe the various tissues of the body. Describe 
the blood of insects — of fishes — of mammalia, birds, and reptiles. 
What change takes place when blood is exposed to the air 1 How is 
the circulation of the blood effected in insects ? — in crustacese ? — in 
fishes ? — in reptiles ? — in man ? Describe the heart, its cavities, its 
valves — the arteries, the veins, and the capillaries. What is the course 
of the circulation in man ? How often is the blood supposed to go 
the round of the circulation ? What circumstances vary the frequency 
of the heart's action ? What is respiration ? What is the essential 
condition for respiration 1 How is it modified in different groups of 
animals ? — in water-hreathing 1 — in air-breathing animals ? Describe 
the respiratory organ of insects — of the snail — of the frog — of the tur- 
tle — of birds. Describe the larynx, the trachea, the bronchi, and 
the thorax in man. What are the active organs of respiration in man ? 
How niay the respiratory organs be affected by dress ? How much 
air is taken into the lungs at each inspiration ? What changes does 
the air undergo in the process of respiration ? What relation has the 
power of maintaining animal heat to the process of respiration ? How 
does the respiration and temperature of birds compare with other ani- 
mals ? What is the temperature in the mammalia ? — in man ? — in 
fevers ? — during sleep ? — in young animals ? What are called warm- 
blooded animals ? What remarkable provision in cold-blooded ani- 
mals for resisting the cold ? Are the lungs the only source of animal 
heat ? How may lung diseases be prevented ? 



20 



COMPANION TO 



DIGESTION. 



133. What is digestion ? 134. From what source is the food of 
plants obtained ? How do animals derive their nourishment 7 135. 
With what organs are all provided? 136. In what animals are the 
digestive organs very simple ? 137. What do we find in the higher 
orders ? 138, What is said in regard to the apparatus for masticating 
the food? 



C-. 





Fig. 22. 



Fig. 28. 




Fig. 28. 





Fig. 24 



Fig. 25. 



139. How is food divided when the process of digestion is per- 
formed rapidly ? 140. How do the organs of mastication indicate the 
class to which each animal belongs? 141. What is said of the jaws 
of insects ? 142. How is mastication peiformed in most of the higher 



CLASB-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



21 



animals? 143. How many kinds of teeth are there in man and the 
mammalia ? Describe each. 144. How many sets of teeth are there ? 
145. How many teeth are there in the first set? How many in the 
second? When does the last molar make its appearance ? 146. Of 
what are the human teeth composed ? 





Fig. 28. 



Fig. 27. 





Fig. 29. 



Fig. 80. 

Describe each structure of the teeth. 
147. How is the enamel distributed on 
other animals? Describe the incisors 
of a rabbit. 148. Describe the teeth of 
grazing animals. 149. What is said of 
the form of the teeth? What is the 
form of the teeth in animals which live 
on flesh ?— on insects ? — on fruit ? 150. 
What is the form of the teeth in fishes 
and reptiles ? 

151. How are the teeth brought 
into action ? How does the lower jaw 
act in diJQferent animals ? 152. Describe the movements of the lower 




Fig. 31. 



22 



COMPANION TO 



jaw in man. 153. What is insalivation ? Where are the salivary 
glands situated ? 154. What is the use of the saliva ? When is the 
saliva secreted 1 How is the secretion of saliva affected by fevers 1 

155. How is digestion affected by an imperfect mastication of the food '? 

156. How is food transmitted to the stomach ? 





Fig. 34. 



Pig. a2. 





Fig. 35. 



Fig. 33. 



157. What is said of the form and size of the stomach ? In what 
class of animals is it found in its simplest condition '? Describe the 
stomach of a hydra. What variation is found in the planaria ? 158. 
Describe the stomach of the higher orders of anim.als. 159. In what 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 23 

class of animals is the stomach the most complex ? How many cavi- 
ties are there in the stomach of a ruminating animal ? Describe the 
course of the food through the several cavities. 160. How is the 
stomach modified in birds ? 161. How is the gizzard placed in insects ? 

162. What do we observe by a comparative view of the stomach in 
different animals? 163. Describe the human stomach. How is it 
placed? What is its average capacity in the adult? How many 
openings has it, and what are they called? 164. How many coats 
does the stomach possess, and what are they ? 

165. Describe the serous coat of the stomach — the muscular coat — 
the mucous coat. 167. What does the mucous coat secrete? 168. 
What is secreted by the gastric follicles ? What is the use of the 
gastric juice ? Describe these follicles. 

169. How does the gastric juice act on all kinds of food ? 170. 
With what does the amount of gastric juice correspond? When is it 
secreted ? How is the food disposed of when more is taken than is 
required ? 171. When is the sense of hunger experienced ? When 
does it cease to be felt ? What is the consequence of swallowing the 
food twice as fast as it should be ? What evils result from rapid eat- 
ing ? 172. Describe the manner in which the food is moved backward 
and forward in the stomach. How long does this process last ? 173. 
What circumstances facilitate the action of the gastric juice on the food ? 

174. Is the value of a particular article of diet in proportion to its 
digestibility ? What properties render an article of diet nutritive ? 

175. What is the food converted into when digestion is complete? 

176. What should be the quantity of the food ? 177. What time 
should be allowed between each meal ? Why should the intervals be- 
tween the meals be shorter with young persons than with adults ? 
178. How does exercise affect digestion ? 

179. What effect has the mind on digestion ? 180. How do drinks 
affect digestion when taken in large quantities ? How does the stomach 
get rid of the fluids ? 181. What course does the food take when it 
has become sufficiently digested to form chyme ? Describe the pyloric 
orifice of the stomach. 183. Into how many portions is the alimen- 
tary canal divided ? What is the length of the alimentary canal in the 
tiger ? — in the sheep ? — in man ? 184. Describe the small intestine — 
the large intestine ? 186. How many coats have the intestines ? 187. 
What glands are imbedded in the mucous membrane of the intestine ? 

189. What changes does the food undergo after passing out of the 
stomach ? 190. Describe the pancreas. Y/'hat is supposed to be the 
use of the fluid secreted by the pancreas ? 191. Describe the liver. 



24 



COMPANION TO 




How is the gall-bladder situated ? 192. What 
are the properties of the bile ? 193. How 
is the chjle formed 7 How is it absorbed ? 
194. What moyements force the passage of 
the food along the alimentary canal ? 195. 
What effect does the wearing of tight garments 
have on the natural movements of the bowels 
and on health ? 



ABSORPTION. 

196. What is absorption ? 197. What tissues possess the power 
of absorption 1 1 98 . To what is a large portion of the weight of the body- 
owing ? How much of its weight does muscle lose in drying ? — blood, 
how much ? To how small a weight have mummies been found reduced ? 
199. By what vessels is the process of absorption performed ? 200. 
What are the lymphatics ? From what do lymphatics derive their 
name ? 201. What are the lymphatics called that have their origin 
in the mucous membrane ? 202. Describe the lymphatics. 



Fig. 87. 




Fig. 89. 



How do they commence 1 203. What is the appearance of the 
lymphatics externally ? How are the valves fof med ? Of what use 
are the valves ? How is the flow of l3miph effected in reptiles 7 204. 
What are lymphatic glands 7 What are they sometimes called when 
they become inflamed 7 205. How are the contents of the lymphatics 
affected by passing through these glands 7 206. How do the lac teals 



CLASB-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 25 

commence 1 Describe a villus. 207. What do the lacteals unite to 
form ? Through what glands do the lacteals pass ? 208. Describe 
the thoracic duct. Into what does the thoracic duct discharge its 
contents ? 

209. How does absorption bj lymphatics or lacteals take place 1 
What materials can traverse the walls of the lymphatics ? What re- 
markable property does this sj^stem of vessels possess ? 210. Do 
blood-vessels possess any power of selecting materials ? What sub- 
stances may be absorbed by blood-vessels ? 211. How are substances 
taken up in the alimentary canal ? 212. How is absorption performed 
from the skin ? How are poisons known to take effect ? 213. Under 
what circumstances does absorption from the skin take place with great 
activity ? 

214. Why are contagious diseases acquired more easily after fasting 
than after a full meal 7 What causes render the system more suscep- 
tible to disease ? Among what class of persons are epidemics most 
fatal ? What are the best safeguards against contagious diseases ? 
215. What creates a necessity for a constant supply of food 1 What 
materials are taken up by the lymphatics ? How may animals live 
for a long time on their own solids 1 What is said in regard to hyber- 
nating animals 7 

216. Through what channel are the materials for the nourishment 
and growth of the body chiefly taken up ? What portions are taken 
up by the lacteals^ and what by the veins ? 217. What is said in re- 
gard to absorption by the skin 1 

NUTRITION. 

218. What is nutrition 1 In what does nutrition essentially con- 
sist ? 219. By what organs are the elements of nutrition prepared ? 
How are the elements of nutrition taken up ? 220. What circum- 
stances may be regarded as essential to nutrition ? 221. What changes 
are the tissues constantly undergoing 1 How are the particles removed 
from the body supplied ? 222. What is said of the life of each indi- 
vidual particle ? In what tissue are the changes the most frequent ? 
223. What takes place with every action of any part of the body ? 

How is this illustrated by a movement of the arm ? 224 The 
rapidity of the changes are in proportion to what 1 What is the effect, 
of exercising particular limbs ? 225. Have physiologists been able to 
determine the means by which each tissue selects those elements which 
form its own composition ? 226. In what is the process of nutrition 
2 



26 



COMPANION TO 



supposed to consist ? 227. When is the body said to increase in size ? 
When is it said to become emaciated ? How does the activity of nu- 
trition vary at different periods of life ? 



SECRETION. 

228, What is secretion ? What is said of the secretions obtained 
from the sap of plants ? What are some of the secretions obtained 
from the sap of plants ? What are some of the secretions obtained 
from animals ? 

229. How is the process of secretion performed in animals and in 
plants 1 What power do the cells seem to possess ? How is the se- 
creting surface increased in particular parts ? 230. What two kinds 
of materials are secreted from the blood of man '? 231. What are the 
principal divisions of the secreting apparatus ? 232. What organs are 
protected by the serous membrane ? What is secreted by the serous 
membrane ? 233. How are the ends of the bones protected ? 




Fig. 41. 



Fig. 40. 



234. What passages are lined by the mucous membrane 1 What is 
the secretion of the mucous membrane called? What is its use? 
235. What are the most important of the secreting glands ? 236. In 
what animals is the liver found ? Of what is the liver made up iu 
man and the mammaha ? What does each lobule contain ? 237. De- 
scribe the use of the hepatic artery— the portal vein — the hepatic vein. 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 27 

How is the bile taken up from each lobule ? 238. What is said of the 
function of the liver ? How is the health affected by inaction of the 
liver ? 

What is the object of the secretion of bile ? 239. What is the 
function of the kidney ? 240. Of what is the cortical substance of the 
kidney composed ? Of what is the central or medullary portion ? 
241. What do the salivary glands include ? 

Of what are the salivary and lachrymal glands composed ? 242. 
What circumstances influence the quantity and character of the secre- 
tions ? How do emotions of the mind influence the secretions ? By 
what organs is the function of secretion performed ? 243. What sub- 
stances are thrown off from the lungs ? — the liver ? — ^the kidneys 1 — 
the skin ? 



TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 



What is digestion ? How are plants nourished ? How are ani- 
mals ? What is mastication ? What are the organs of mastication % ^ 
How varied in different animals ? Describe the teeth of man — of the j/ 
rodentia — of herbivorous— of carnivorous animals — of reptiles. What 
is insalivation ? How is deglutition performed ? Describe the 
stomach in its most simple condition — in its most complex — in birds— ^- 
in insects — in man. Describe the coats of the stomach. How is the 
gastric fluid formed 7 What are its uses ? When is a sense of hunger 
felt 7 Why is rapid eating injurious ? How long does the process of 
digestion last ? How is the food moved about the stomach '? What 
conditions render the food more easy of digestion ? What circum- 
stances facilitate the process of digestion ? What changes in the food 
after it passes out of the stomach ? Describe the alimentary canal. 
How many coats have the intestines ? Describe the pancreas — liver — 
the bile. How is chyle formed ? What is absorption ? What tissues 
possess the power of absorption ? Describe the lymphatics — the lac* j 
teals. How are substances taken up in the alimentary canal '? How 
is absorption performed from the skin ? Why is there a necessity for , 
a constant supply of food ? What is nutrition ? What change is the 
body constantly undergoing ? Upon what does the rapidity of the , 
changes going on in the body depend ? In what is the process of nu- i) 
trition supposed to consist ? What is secretion 7 What substances 
are secreted by plants 7 — by animals 7 How is secretion performed 7 
What are the most important secreting glands 7 Of what importance 
is the function of the liver to health 7 Describe the salivary glands. 
By what organs is excretion especially performed 7 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 29 



THE SKIN. 

244. What are the principal layers of the skin 1 245. How is the 
epidermis formed'? What becomes of the external layers of the 
epidermis 7 246. How is the epidermis raised from the true skin ? 
How are the minute scales of which the surface of the epidermis is com- 
posed, cast off ? How are the different varieties of complexion caused ? 
247. Where are the pigment cells deposited ? 248. Why is the epider- 
mis a hard insensible membrane ? 

How is the epidermis affected by pressure 1 249. How is it marked 
on the surface 1 By what is the epidermis perforated 7 250. Describe 
the dermis or true skin. 251. What lies beneath the true skin ? 252. 
Of what is each papilla composed ? What is the blood-vessel 1 What 
sense is located in the papillae ? Where are they the most densely set '? 

253. Where are the perspiratory glands located? How do the 
perspiratory ducts pass through the skin 1 How numerous are the 
perspiratory ducts ? 254. AVhat is constantly exhaled from the per- 
spiratory ducts ? What is sensible and what insensible perspiration ? 
How much is estimated to be exhaled from the skin of an adult daily ? 
How may the perspiration be increased or diminished ? 255-. Of what 
use in the animal economy is this watery exhalation ? What matters 
are carried off? 256. Where are the oil glands located? Where do 
their ducts open ? 

In what parts are the oil glands most numerous ? Of what use is 
the oily secretion ? 257. What purpose do these glands serve on the 
margin of the eyelids ? What are these glands called when they be- 
come inflamed ? 258. What are regarded as appendages of the skin ? 
How does each hair originate ? How are the hairs softened ? How 
is the coloring matter secreted ? What causes the hair to become 
gray ? What is the form of each hair ? What is the form of the end 
of hair ? What part of the hair is the smallest in most animals ? 
How do most animals shed their hair ? 

In what manner do deer shed their antlers ? 259. How are the 
nails produced ? Describe the insertion of the nail and the process of 
its growth. 2C0. What is the use of the nail ? 261. What do the 
feathers, hoofs, and horns of animals resemble in their structure ? For 
what are the feathers of birds remarkable ? How are they formed ? 



30 



COMPANION TO 



NERVOUS SYSTEM, 

262. Of what does the nervous system consist ? 263. Of what is 
the brain the centre ? 264. What is the office of the nerves? 2G5. 
How are the nerves divided? What illustration can you give of the 
function of both ? Have the two classes of nerves the same origin from 
the nervous centre ? 266. Do nerves originate impressions ? How is 
each class of nerves stimulated ? 267. How does nervous force move 
along a nerve ? Can a single nerve-fibre convey more than one kind 
of impression? What does a nerve of motion convey? What a 
sensitive fibre ? 

268. How are the motor fibres distributed to the muscles ? How 
do the nerves of sensation originate ? What sense is seated in the 
ramifications of the nerves of sensation ? 269. How does an individual 
become conscious of what is passing around him? What takes place 
betbre any movement of the body can be effected ? 270. What are 
those movements called which do not seem to be excited by impres- 
sions made on the brain ? Why are they called reflex movements ? 
271. In what changes are the reflex movements particularly concerned ? 





Fig. 42. 



Fig. 43. 



272. What are the centres of reflex action ? What particular ad- 
vantage may be supposed to result from this arrangement ? 273. How 
may the true nature of reflex action be more easily comprehended ? 
274. In what animal is one of the simplest forms of the nervous sys- 
tem found ? Describe the nervous system of the ascidia and the phe- 
nomena of life exhibited by that animal — 275. of the pecten. 



CLASS=BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



3i 



276. What is said of the ganglia in the higher orders of animals 1 
277. How does the nervous system of insects compare with that of the 



-^^m^ 




^ 



Fig. 44. 

Mollusca ? Of what does the nervous sys- 
tem of insects consist 1 How are the 
ganglia united? How do the ganglia of 
the perfect insect differ from that of the 
larva or caterpillar? 278. Describe Fig. 
45, with the difference between A and B. 
279. Explain the arrangement of the gan- 
glia of insects. ^^^ ^ 

280. How is it shown in the case of the 
centipede that consciousness depends on the cephalic ganglia ? 28 L Ho w 






Fig. 47. 
Fig. 46. 

are the ganglia arranged and protected in vertebral animals ? Of what 



32 COMPANION TO 

parts does the brain of the higher vertebrata consist ? What ganglia 
at the base of the cerebrum ? 282. What is said of the brain of a fish 1 
Describe Fig. 46. What parts are large and what small in a fish ? 
What is the comparative size of the cerebral hemispheres in birds ? 

283. What is said of the cerebellum ? — the spinal cord ? How do 
birds compare in intelligence with the animals previously considered 1 
284. How are the cerebral developments in man? — how the spinal 
cH)rd ? How is the surface of the brain in man ? 285, Of what docs 
the nervous system of man or the higher animals consist 1 Of what 
is the cerebro-spinal system composed? W^hat has it been called? 

With what is the sympathetic system connected, and what has it 
been called? Of what does it consist? 286. What is the spinal 
cord ? How is the canal in which it is lodged formed ? What is the 
extent of the spinal cord ? — ^and of what does it consist ? ^ How are 
the two halves united ? How is each half divided ? What enlarge- 
ments in the spinal cord ? 

287. How many nerves are given off by the 
^, spinal cord? How many pairs are given off in the 

r"^ neck — back — loins — pelvis ? How does each nerve 

^ ^^ arise from the spinal cord ? Of what fibres do 

the posterior roots consist ?— the anterior ? Yf hat 
would be the effect of irritating the anterior or 
the posterior, if the spinal cord of an animal was 
laid bare? 288. What two functions does the 
spinal cord perform ? Explain how it acts as a 
Fig. 4.S. conductor of nervous impressions. What are the 

effects of lacerating or dividing the cord? 289. 
Explain how the spinal cord is a nervous centre of refiex actions. 
290. Does the spinal cord possess any degree of independent power ? 
How does it differ from that of the brain ? 

291. Where is the medulla oblongata ? How is it formed ? What 
is said of its columns ? With what functions are its nerves connected ? 
292. How does the medulla oblongata differ from the rest of the spinal 
cord ? 293. Of what importance to the maintenance of life are the 
functions of the medulla oblongata ? By what experiments has it been 
proved that life can be maintained so long as this portion remains un- 
injured ? 

294. What has been said of the power of reflex action in this por- 
tion ? What effects are produced on the respiratory movements by 
stimuli applied to other portions of the body ? How are convulsions 
often produced ? What is usually the immediate cause of death in 




CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 33 

such cases ? 295. Gf how many portions does the brain consist, and 
what are they called ? What portion of the craninm is occupied by 
the cerebrum ? 

How is the cerebrum divided 1 How are the two halves connected 
together ? What is the external appearance of each hemisphere ? 
296. Of what is the nervous tissue of the cerebrum composed ? How 
are the white and gray substances disposed 1 How may the manner 
in which the two substances are disposed be illustrated ? What is 
the effect of this arrangement 1 What proportion of the whole amount 
of blood has been estimated to be sent to the brain ? 297, What are 
the internal cavities called 1 

How do they communicate with each other 7 298. Where is the 
cerebellum situated 7 — how is it divided 7 Of what two substances is 
it composed 7 What is the appearance of the matter when divided 
vertically 7 299. How is the brain protected 7 What was the origin 
of the name applied to the dura mater and pia mater? 3O0. Describe 
the dura mater. What is that portion of the dura mater called which 
divides the two hemispheres 7 

Vv^hat other processes are there? 301. Describe the arachnoid 
membrane ? 302. Describe the pia mater. * 303. How many pairs of 
nerves are given off from the brain ? What are they called ? 304. 
Where are the first pair distributed^ and what is its office 7 — the 
second 7 What are the third, fourth, and sixth pairs ? What is the 
fifth pair ? How is it divided 7 Where is each branch of the fifth 
distributed ? 305. What is the seventh pair ?— the eighth 7 What 
is the origin of the ninth pair ? What organs does it supply ? To 
what parts do the eleventh and twelfth give motion ? What two sets 
of filaments are all these nerves supposed to contain I 

306. What is said in regard to the functions of the cerebellum ? 
How is it regarded by the most intelligent physiologists 7 What do 
experiments on living animals show in regard to the formations of the 
cerebellum 7 307. What is most probably the function then of the 
cerebellum 7 308» What is said in regard to the development of the 
cerebellum in the cat tribe and in birds ? In what class does the cere- 
bellum acquire its highest development ? 

309. What is said in regard to the influence of each half of the 
cerebellum ? 3 IX. Is reason peculiar to, man ? When may an animal 
be said to reason? How may we discover the presence of intelli- 
gence in animals ? What example is given of different degrees of in- 
telligence in an animal ? What seems to be the nature of the action 
of insects 7 312. What is said in regard to birds ? 



34 COMPAmON TO 

In what actions do birds seem to be governed by instinct, and in 
what by intelligence? 313. How does the amount of intelligence in 
different animals compare with the development of the cerebral hem- 
ispheres ? Is all the difference produced by size alone 1 What other 
circumstances are to be taken into the account 1 What is said of the 
size of the cerebellum, compared with that of the spinal cord ? How 
does this rule hold in regard to different men ? 314. Why may two 
men whose brains are of the same size differ widely in mental vigor '? 
Under what circumstances will a large brain surpass a sm-all one in 
power 7 

What has been said in regard to the size of the brain in men who 
have been distinguished for their talents ? What examples are given 
of large brains'? How is the brain in idiots? 315. How may the 
size of the brain be estimated? 316. In what class is the facial angle 
more open than in all others ? How does it vary in different races ? 
What is the facial angle of an European or an American — of a negro— 
of a monkey ? 317. What may we regard as the connecting link be- 
tween the mind and the body ? How may we regard all the organs 
of the body ? What parts are made to express the emotion of the 
mind? What control does the mind exert over the body? 318, 
What then may we regard the body ? How is the influence of the 
mind upon the body reciprocated ? 

What illustration is given to show this fact? 319. Upon what 
does the intellect stamp itself ? As we ascend the scale of being, how 
is intelligence marked ? How is it shown that the nervous power is 
at its highest point in man ? What is said in regard to the cares and 
anxieties of man, compared with other animals? When does man 
obtain the highest perfection ? 320. What should be observed in the 
education of the young ? 

323. How should the mind be trained in more mature years ? Who 
are usually the best thinkers ? What is the effect of keeping the brain 
constantly at work ? Who are the men who have done the most for 
the world ? Why does genius so often find an early grave ? 



CLASS-BOOK or PHYSIOLOGY. 35 



TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Describe tlie layers of the skin— the papillas — the perspiratory 
glands— -sensible and insensible perspiration — the sebaceous glands — 
the hair and nails. Of what does the nervous system consist ? What 
is the brain ? "What are the spinal cord, ganglia, and nerves 7 What 
is the office of the nerves 1 ITow do we become conscious of what is 
passing around us ? What must take place before any movement of 
the body can be effected ? What are reflex movements ? What are 
the centres of reflex action? Describe the nervous system of the 
ascidia — of the pecten—of an insect. How are the ganglia of insects ar- 
ranged ? How is it shown that consciousness in the centipede depends 
on the cephalic ganglion 7 How are the ganglia arranged and pro- 
tected in vertebrated animals ? Of what parts does the brain consist 
in vertebrated animals ? Describe Fig. 46, Fig. 47, and the relative 
size of the different parts in each. How are the cerebral developments 
in man ? AVhat are the two principal portions of the nervous system 
of man ? Describe the spinal cord. How many nerves are given off 
by the spinal cord 1 What is the function of the anterior roots ? — of 
the posterior roots ? What two functions does the spinal cord per- 
form ? What are the effects of lacerating or dividing the spinal cord ? 
Explain how the spinal cord is a nervous centre of reflex actions. 
Describe the medulla oblongata. What are its functions ? TV liat 
connection has it with the maintenance of life 7 What are the ;rin- 
cipal portions of the human brain 7 Describe the cerebrum. IIo\v is 
it divided 7 How are its two halves connected together 7 Of what 
two substances is it composed, and how are they arranged 7 Describe 
the cerebellum. Describe the membranes which envelope the brain. 
How many pairs of nerves are given off from the brain 7 What is the 
function of the cerebellum 7 In what class of animals does it acquire 
its highest development 7 What is the function of the cerebrum 7 
When may an animal be leaid to reason 7 How does the amount of 



36 COMPANION TO 

intelligence in different animals compare with the development of the 
cerebral hemispheres ? Is the intellectual power in different men in 
proportion to the size of the brain 7 What other circumstances are to 
be considered ? What examples of distinguished men who have had 
large brains 1 What is the connecting link between the mind and the 
body ? How may we regard all the organs of the body 1 What in- 
fluence has the mind on the body 1 How should the intellectual and 
physical powers be developed ? What is often the result of premature 
culture ? How should the mind be trained in more mature years ? 
Who are generally the best thinkers ? 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 37 



THE SENSES. 




* 824. How many senses 
are there? What is the 
office of the senses 1 How 
do we obtain our ideas of 
form, taste, odor, and sound ? 
325. Which of the senses is 
the most universally diffus- 
ed ? What is the extent in 
man 'I How is it limited in 
other animals ? What are 
the organs of touch in in- 
sects? ^'^•^*- 

326. What is the condition of the body in fishes ? Where is the 
sense of touch most perfectly developed in animals which are covered 
with hair ? What is said of the lips of the horse and the whiskers of 
carnivorous animals ? 327. What are the chief organs of touch in most 
of the mammalia ? In what parts is it possessed very acutely by the 
elephant and the bat T 328, With what is the true skin in man 
studded 7 

With what is each papilla provided ? Where are the papillae the 
most numerous, and the sense of touch the most acute ? What is 
said of the improvement of the hand by education 1 How do the blind 
learn to read ? 329. To what parts is the sense of touch almost wholly 
confined in all animals ? Where is the pain the most acute in cases 
of injury ? What may we regard the sense of touch 1 

330. What is taste ? What is its chief purpose ? How is the sense 
of taste excited ? What is said of substances that are not soluble 7 
331. To what parts is the sense of taste chiefiy confined 1 What is 
said of the papillas of the tongue ?— of their form and size 1 

Describe the fungiform papillge. 333. Of what is the tongue itself 
made up 7 What is the structure of the tongue in birds 7 For what 
other purposes is the tongue of some birds used ? What is said of the 
tongue in reptiles 7 — in serpents 7 — in the frog, and the chameleon 7 
What of the tongue of the fish and the bee 7 334. How are most of 
the lower animals directed in the choice of their food 7 

How is man guided? How do substances naturally loathsome 
come to be agreeable 7 What examples are given 7 335. Upon what 



38 COIUP ANION TO 

does the susceptibility of the organs of taste to pleasurable sensations 
depend ? What ensues if indulgence qf the appetite is persisted in be- 
yond the actual demand for food ? What is said in regard to the sym- 
pathy of the organ of taste with the stomach ? 336. What is smell ? 
What properties do certain bodies seem to possess ? What is said of 
the particles which emanate from odorous bodies 1 

How long will musk scent a room without any apparent loss of its 
particles ? What is said of bodies which lose weight by loss of parti- 
cles ? 337. Where is the special seat of the sense of smell ? What 
is the membrane called ? 338. The acuteness of this sense is in pro- 
portion to what ? What is said of the size of the nose in those ani- 
mals which are remarkable for acuteness of smell ? How is the inte- 
rior surface of the nose greatly increased ? 339. Explain the manner 
in which the odorous particles are made to act on the Schneiderian 
membrane ? 

Under what circumstances do the odorous particles fail to make 

any inpression? 340. Do all 
animals perceive the same odors 
equally well 1 In what do car- 
nivorous animals excel ? — in what 
herbivorous ? What is said of the 
deer and antelope ? Of what special 
use does the sense of smell seem to 
be to this class of animals ? 341. 
How do the herbivorous animals 
seem to be guided in selecting their 
food ? 342. What is said of the 
scent of the dog ? — the deer-hound ? 
343. What is said of the sense of smell in birds and fishes ? — what 
of insects ? 344. How may the sense of smell be improved ? How 
is it in the blind 1 What is said of the Indians of Peru ? What ex- 
amples are given in which this sense has become morbidly sensitive ? 
345. What is hearing ? What is the special organ of hearing 1 
What is the essential part of this organ 1 346. Describe the ear. as 
found in the crab, lobster, &c. How is it inclosed in some species 1 
With what in higher animals does this cavity correspond ? Is this 
part ever omitted in the most perfect development of the organs? 

347. What may all other parts be regarded ? What parts are added in 
fishes ? What other parts are added in animals which live in the air 1 

348. Of how many parts is the ear composed in man and most of the 
mammalia ? What are these parts ? 




CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 39 

349, Describe the external ear. What peculiarity has it in most of 
the quadrupeds ? Do men ever possess the power of moving the ex- 
ternal ear 1 

350. What may be made use of to collect the vibrations of sound 
by persons who are partially deaf 1 What effect does it have on the 
vibrations of sound? 351. What is said of the canal into which the 
external ear collects the sonorous vibrations ? How is it separated 
from the middle ear 1 What is its length ? How is it protected from 
insects 7 352. Have reptiles and birds any external ear ? 353, Where 
is the tympanum formed in frogs ?■ — in birds ? Describe it in man. 
What other name is applied to the middle ear 1 With what is it filled 1 
How does it communicate with the external air ? Where does this 
tube terminate 1 What is its use 1 What effect do colds sometimes 
have on this tube ? 



A 



d 

Fig. 51. 



354. What peculiar arrangement within the ear ? How are these 
bones arranged ? How do they move with the vibrations of the tym- 
panum ? What substitute for a chain of bones do we find in birds 
and reptiles ? How can this bone be seen in the ear of a bird? 355, 
How many cavities has the internal ear ? 

356. With what does the vestibule correspond ? How is it sepa- 
rated from the middle ear ? How is this partition perforated ? How 
are these openings closed ? 357. What are the semi-circular canals ? 
In what animals are those canals found ? What is their use ? 358. 
From what does the cochlea derive its name ? What is the form and 
position of the cochlea ? To what class of animals is it peculiar ? 
What has been supposed to be the use of the cochlea ? 359, How are 
the cavities of the internal ear lined ? What is distributed on this 



40 



COMPANION TO 



membrane ? With what are these cavities filled 7 What constitutes 
the real organ by which impressions of sound are received and trans- 
mitted ? How are the vibrations of sound communicated to the nerve 1 

360. At what rare does sound travel through the air ? What is 
its velocity through water 1 What advantage then is gained by the 
nerves receiving impressions through water instead of air ? Why do 
animals which live in air require an apparatus more complicated than 
those which live in water 1 What parts do we find added in those 
animals which live in air ? 

What is said in regard to the adaptation of the tympanum and the 
bones which connect it to the internal ear to receive the vibrations 
of the air ? 361. Will the faculty of hearing be entirely lost if the 
drum is destroyed ? How will the hearing be afiected by its loss ? 

362. How may the faculty of hearing be increased in acuteness 7 
Upon what does this increase seem to depend ? What examples are 
given of the habit of attention 1 

363. What is sight ? 364. What is the organ of sight ? In what 
does it consist essentially ? 365. How do some of the inferior animals 
seem to be guided in their movements ? 366. With what are most 
insects provided ? Of what are those compound eyes made up ? What 
is each facet ? How numerous are these facets ? How many in the 
eye of a butterfly ? — in the beetle ? What seems to be the use of 





so large a number ? 367. With how many eyes are spiders provided ? 
368. How many eyes are there in the snail, and how are they situated 7 
How is the eye placed in crabs and lobsters ? 369. How many eyes 
are there in all the higher animals ? 370. What is the form of the 
eye, and how is it placed ? How is the orbit lined ? 

What takes place when a person becomes very much emaciated 7 
371. How is the eye protected against insects, dust, &c. ? 372. What 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



41 



membrane is there in birds and reptiles ? How is it drawn across the 
eye ? How does it protect the eye without preventing sight ? 373. 
With what is the horse provided 1 Describe the haw. 374. How is 
the anterior surface of the eye covered 1 * 375. How is the conjunctiva 
moistened ? Where is the lachrymal gland situated ? What is con- 
tinually pouring out from this gland ? How is this secretion increased ? 
How do the tears pass out of the eye ? 

Where is the lachrymal sac situated, and how do the tears escape 
from it ? 376. Of what are the walls of the eye composed 1 How is 
its interior occupied 1 377. Describe the sclerotic. 378. Describe the 
cornea. How is it received into the sclerotic ? What portion of the 
eye does it occupy ? What is said in regard to its prominence at dif- 
ferent periods of life and in different animals 1 

380. What fluid occupies the anterior chamber of the eye J How 
does it affect the form of the cornea ? 381. Describe the vitreous hu- 
mor. 382. The crystalline humor. What is the form of it ? How is 
it suspended in its place ? 383. How are the aqueous and vitreous 
humors separated from each other 1 From what does the iris receive 
its name 1 What opening has the iris in the centre ? What is the 
form of the pupil in man 1 

How does it vary in size ? 384. To what is the blackness of the 
pupil owing ? What is the color of the pupil and iris in albinoes 1 
What peculiar appearance has the eye in many quadrupeds ? 385. 
What is the form of the pupil in grazing animals ? — in carnivorous 
animals ? 386. What is situated inside of the choroid coat ? Describe 
the retina. 387. How is the globe of the eye moved ? How does the 
superior rectus move the eye ? — the inferior rectus ? — ^the internal 
rectus ? — the external rectus ? 





Fig. 56. 

Describe the superior oblique. What 
is the use of this muscle ? In what di- 
rection does the inferior oblique turn the 
eye ? 388. To what do the coats and 
humors of the eye seem adapted ? Kow does the eye compare with 
optical instruments ? 389. IIow are the rays of light affected by 



42 COMPANION TO 

passing obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium '? The refraction 
is in proportion to what ? What examples are given, illustrating the 
refraction of the rays of light in passing from air to water ? 

390. How are the rays of light refracted towards the pupil ? 391. 
How are the rays of light affected by the crystalline lens and the yitre- 
ous humor ? What is the position of the image on the retina ? De- 
scribe Fig. 58. 392. How may the inverted image be seen ? 

393. What is the use of the black pigment on the internal surface 
of the choroid ? How does the light affect the eye in albinoes ? 394. 
How are short and long-sightedness caused ? 395. What is the defect 
in short-sightedness ? What is the form of the cornea in short-sight- 
edness ? 396. How is it frequently caused ? 

397. How may short-sightedness be remedied ? What power do 
sailors acquire by the habit of viewing objects at a distance^? What 
kind of glasses may be used to remedy short-sightedness ? What 
will be the effect of using glasses that are too concave ? — not quite 
concave enough to compensate for the convexity of the eye ? How 
does the eye gradually return to its natural form ? 398. What is the 
cause of long-sightedness ? What change in the eye diminishes its 
convexity ? How may the difficulty be remeded ? 399. What is 
said in regard to the liability of the eye to become diseased ? What 
parts are liable to become inflamed or to be injured by improper use ? 
What causes induce disease ? How may disease be prevented ? 



TOPICS FOR REYIEW. 



How many senses are there I Which is the most universally dif- 
fused ? What is its extent in man 1 — in insects ? — in fishes 7 — in 
those animals covered with hair ? — in most of the mammalia ? With 
what is the true skin in man studded ? Where is the sense of touch 
most acute ? What is taste ? AYhat is its use ? How is it excited? 
To what parts is it confined ? What is the structure of the tongue in 
birds ? To what use is the tongue applied by some birds ? How are 
animals directed in the choice of their food ? How is man guided ? 
What sympathy exists between the stomach and the sense of taste 1 
What is smell ? How do bodies impart odorous particles ? Where 
is the special seat of the sense of smell 7 What is the size of the nose 
in animals remarkable for acuteness of smell 7 Do all animals per- 
ceive the same odors equally well ? In what do carnivorous animals 
excel ? — in what herbivorous ? What is said of the dog ? — the deer, 
and the antelope ? What is hearing ? What is the special organ of 
hearing 7 What is the essential part of this organ 7 Describe the 
different parts of the ear — the external, the middle, and the internal. 
What animals are destitute of the external ear 7 What parts are 
found in those animals living in the water 7 What is supposed to be 
the use of the semi-circular canals 7— of the cochlea 7 At what rate 
does sound travel through air 7 — through water 7 Why do animals 
which live in air require a more complicated apparatus for hearing than 
those living in water 7 How may the faculty of hearing be increased 
in acuteness 7 What is sight 7 What is the organ of sight 7 De- 
scribe the eyes of insects — of the snail. What is the form of the eye 
in man 7 How is the human eye protected in man 7 — in birds 7 — in 
the horse 7 How is the eye kept moist 7 Describe the lachrymal 
apparatus. Describe the coats of the eye — the humors. How is the 
globe of the eye moved 7 To what purpose are the coats and humors 
of the eye adapted 7 Explain Figs. 57, 58. What is short-sighted- 
ness 7 How is it remedied 7 What is long-sightedness 7 How may 
it be remedied 7 



44 COMPANION TO 



ANIMAL MOTION. 

400. What power is characteristic of all animals ? 401. What are 
the organs of voluntary motion ? 402. What do the bones constitute ? 
— what the muscles ? 404. What are the principal hard parts in ani- 
mals ? What is the composition of shells ? — -of crusts ? 

405. In what state do bones exist at first ? How are they conyerted 
into bone ? 406. Which portion of the bones continues to increase 
and which to diminish to old age ? What proportion of the bones is 
animal matter in children ? — in adults ? — in old age '? 407. What is 
the condition of the bones in children ? To what injury are the bones 
most liable at this age ? 408. How are infants made bow-legged ? 
409. At what age do the bones arrive at perfection? Wliat is the 
condition of the bones in old age 1 To what injury are the bones of 
the aged liable ? 

410. How can we separate the animal from the earthy portion of 
the bones 1 411. How the earthy portion ? 412. What is said of the 
bones of the higher animals ? 413. W'hat is the form of the principal 
bones of tiie extremities ? JDescribe the shaft, and the extremities of 
a long bone. 414. How are the different bones of the ^ody united to 
each other ? 415. How are the different bones of the cranium united 
together 1 

How are the sutures formed ? What is said of their firmness at 
adult age ? 416. How are the bones forming joints bound together? 
How is the end of each bone covered ? How is each joint inclosed ? 
What is the office of the synovial fluid ? 417. How is this fluid som.e- 
times affected by an injurj^ ? 418. How may the structure of a joint 
be seen ? 419. How many kinds* of joints are there ? W^hat is said 
of the hip-joint ? 420. What circumstance seems designed to prevent 
dislocation at the hip-joint ? 

421. Of how many bones is the skeleton of man formed ? How is 
it divided ? What bones are included in the head ? — the trunk ? — the 
extremities ? 423. Of how many bones is the face formed ? 424. De- 
scribe the cranium. Its walls are made up of how mau}^ bones ? 425. 
On what principle is the cranium constructed ? How is a separation 
of the bones prevented ? 426. Of how many bones does the spinal 
column consist ? How are they divided ? 

What change takes place with the five sacral vertebrae? 427. What 
is said of the number of the cervical vertebra3 in the mammalia ?— in 
birds ? How many cervical vertebrae has the crane and the swallow ? 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 45 

429. What do the Vertebrae form when united together '? 430. What 
is gained by the division of the spinal column into so many separate 
pieces 1 431. Of what does each vertebras consist ? 432. What is 
the form of the two surfaces of the body of the vertebrae ? 433. What 
is the form in fishes and reptiles ? What kind of a joint do they form 1 

434. How are the two surfaces separated in fishes ? 435. How do 
fishes propel tWir bodies ? For what purpose are fins used ? What 
attitude is peculiar to man 7 436. What is the form of the spine in 
man ? What advantage is obtained by this form ? How do the ver- 
tebras in man differ from those of all other animals ? What is said of 
the spinal processes in quadrupeds ? 437. Hov7 many ribs are there 
in man ? What are the attachments of the ribs ? 

How many of the cartilages are attached directly to the breast- 
bone ? What are the five lower ribs called ? 438. What is the form 
of the breast-bone in man ? — in those animals which have need of great 
strength in the upper limbs '? What is said of it in the turtle ? 439. 
How many extremities are there in all the vertebrated animals ? 
What is said of their construction ? What illustrations are given ? 
441. Describe the scapula or shoulder-blade. How is it attached to 
the trunk ? What advantages are derived from this kind of attach- 
ment ? 

442. What are the attachments of the clavicle ? What is the use 
of this bone ? In what animals is it strongest ? In what animals 
weakest ? How is it in birds ? — in the lion, deer, &c. ? 443. How is 
the arm supported ? How many bones are there in the fore-arm, and 
what are they called ? On which side is the radius ? — the ulna 1 
How are the radius and ulna connected to each other ? How do these 
bones rotate on each other ? In what condition are the radius and 
ulna in most quadrupeds ? 444. How is the hand anatomically di- 
vided 7 Describe the carpus — the metacarpus — the phalanges. 

How many phalanges are there in the thumb ? — in the fingers ? 
445. How are the foot and ankle in quadrupeds made more solid than 
the wrist and hand in man ? Are these parts found solid originally ? 
How many phalanges are there in the deer ? — in the horse ? 446. 
How do the upper and lower extremities differ from each other ? 447. 
How are the lower extremities connected with the spine ? How is 
the thigh supported ? 

What is the form of the upper extremity ? — of the lower extremity ? 
448. How^ many bones form the leg ? What is their comparative size 7 
Describe the tibia. 449. What bone in front of the kn^e-joint 7 What 
is its use 7 450. Of how m.any portions is the foot composed, and 



46 



COMPANION TO 



what are they called ? How many 
bones in the tarsus 7 — the metatarsus 7 
How many phalanges are there in the 
toes 7 What do the tarsus and meta- 
tarsus form 7 What advantages are de- 
rived from this form of the foot 7 451. 
In animals which walk on all-fours, how 
is a jar prevented from extending to 
the body 7 

452. How are parts of the skeleton 
set in motion 7 453. Of what is each 
muscle made up 7 What is the size 
of the primitive fibrils 7 With what 
is each fibre supplied 7 How is the 
muscular tissue excited to contraction 7 
What change takes place in a muscle 
when it contracts 7 When is the muscle 
454. Upon what does the energy of the 
muscular contraction depend 7 

455. In what cases of great nervous excitement is this frequency 
observed 7 What example is given 7 456. What other purpose do 
the bones serve besides afibrding attachment for the muscles 7 457. 
How do most of the muscles act on the bones 7 What law of me- 
chanics in regard to this 7 Explain Fig. 61. What force in the mus- 
cle will be required to raise one pound at the wrist 7 




Fig. 59. 



Fi-. 60. 



enlarged most in diameter 7 




Fig. 61. 

If this muscle contracts one inch, through what space will it move 
the wrist 7 458. Under ordinary circumstances, upon what does the 
energy of muscular contraction depend 7 What kind of muscles act 
with greatest energy 7 What is said of the muscles in the sedentary 
and inactive 7 What is said of the arms of the smith, and the legs 



CLASS-BOOK OF rHYSIOLOGY. 



47 




of the pedestnan? What is said of 
the influence of exercise on the muscles, 
and on the health of all the powers ? 
459. How are the muscles affected by 
use ? 460. In what animals is the en- 
ergy of muscular contraction greatest in 
proportion to size ? llow far will a flea 
leap 1 How far would the same mus- 
cular power in man enable him to leap 1 
How much would it enable him to lift? 
of beetle? What is said of the movements of insects ? 461. What 
ark-^ the various kinds of progression in animals called ? 462. How is the 
body in fishes propelled through the water ? How is the stroke made 
against the water in most cases ? What propels the fish ? How is 
the tail expanded in the whale, and how is its stroke made ? What 
is said of the structure of the tail ? — of the power of the whale ? 



Fig. 62. 



What is said of some species 




Fig. 63. 



463. For what are the fins of fishes principally used ? How is 
progression effected in serpents ? 464. What other mode of progres- 
sion is there in some serpents ? 465. What does flying resemble ? 
How are birds adapted to flying ? In what respect do the bones of 
birds excel all other animals? What are the long bones? What 
does the breast-bone resemble ? 

What is gained by this peculiar form 7 How is the bony apparatus 
united together ? What is said of the skeleton ? How is the body 
suspended in the air ? What is said of the muscles which are attached 
to the breast-bone ? — to the back ? In what direction is the greatest 
power of the wings ? Describe the movements of the wings in the 



48 COMPANION TO 

effort to fly. 466. What is said of the rapidity of flight in birds ? 
What examples ? 467, How is walking produced ? How is it pro- 




Fig. 64 
duced in man ? — in quadrupeds ? 468. Describe running. What ani- 
mal surpasses all others in running ? 469. Describe trotting. 470. 
Describe leaping. 

THE VOICE. 

471. In what does the voice consist '? 472. What animals may be 
said to be mute ? Why may they be said to be mute ? How do in- 
sects produce sounds ? How is the chirp of the cricket produced 1 
How is the sound of a grasshopper caused ? — the mosquito ? — bees and 
flies ? How are other sounds caused 1 473. How is sound produced 
in air-breathing vertebrata ? 

Where is it produced in reptiles ? 474. How are the vocal organs 
situated in birds ? What does the apparatus resemble ? In what 
birds is it most complicated ? 475. Where is the vocal organ situated 
in man, and what is it called ? From what does it receive its peculiar 
form ? 

476. Which of the cartilages is the largest? Of what is it com- 
posed ? What protuberance does it form '? What is above and below 
the thyroid cartilage ? 477. Where is the cricoid cartilage placed ? 
What is its form ? 478. What are the arytenoid cartilages ? How 
are they placed? What do they resem.ble when joined together? 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



49 



479. What are the vocal cords, and how are they situated ? What is 
the form of the aperture between the vocal cords ? How is it closed? 




Fig. 65. 



Fig. 66. 



Fig. 67. 





Fig. 6S. 

Of what other use is it besides to regulate the passage of air ? What 
other guards has the larynx 1 

480. What is the condition of ^^^^^^^ B 

the aperture in the ordinary 
acts of inspiration, in the 
production of vocal sounds ? 
What does the vibration of 
the vocal cords resemble? 
How are dilSerent sounds 
caused ? What tone is pro- 
duced when the tension is 
feeble ? — when it is great ? 

481. How is the tension 
of the vocal cord regulated 7 




Fig. Tl. 



Have we any consclousneF.s of the tension of the vocal cords ? What 



50 COMPANION TO 

is their average length in the male in a state of repose ? — in the greatest 
tension ? What is the difference in the female ? How many different 
degrees of tension are there in a natural voice ? In a highly-cultivated 
voice ? 482. How is loss of voice caused ? What other parts are 
sometimes affected when the vocal cords are inflamed ? 483. What is 
said of the power of producing articulate sounds ? How may the voice 
be greatly improved ? 

THE HUMAN FORM. 

484. What has always been given as one of the characteristics of 
man ? 485. What is said of the importance of an erect form ? What 
impression does a man of erect form make on us ? — one of a stooping 
form 1 486. What must be the effect upon health of any deformity 
of the cavities which contain the vital organs ? 487. How are de- 
formities usually caused 7 488. What is the condition of the bones 
during childhood ? How may the bone of the thigh be bent 1 

489o What are the most common deformities ? What bones of the 
body are more easily changed in form than any other ? Describe the 
ribSj and the manner they are attached to the spine and the breast- 
bone. How are the ribs affected by tight dress ? How much pressure 
is necessary to produce deformity of the ribs ? How may a young 
lady be deformed for life? How are the deformities of the spine 
caused ? 490. Describe the spinal column. How is it maintained in 
the erect attitude ? What takes place when the muscles become 
weakened 7 How does the deformity become permanent 7 

491. In what other way may curvature of the spine be caused 7 
How does the habit of inclining to one side .frequently commence 7 
492. With what kind of exercise should youth always be furnished 7 
Is time for amusement sufficient 7 What parts should be exercised in 
amusement 7 



TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

What power is characteristic of all animals ? What are the organs 
of voluntary motion ? What are the bones ? — the muscles ? What 
are the principal hard parts in animals 7 What is the condition of the 
bones when first formed ?— in children ? — in the aged ? At what age 
do the bones reach their maturity ? To what injuries are the bones 
most liable in children ? — in the aged ? How are the portions of the 
bones separated ? What is the form of the principal bones of the ex- 
tremities ? How are the different bones united to each other ? — the 
bones of the cranium and skull ? — those forming joints ? Describe 
the structure of the joints — the hip-joint. How many bones in the 
human skeleton '? How are they divided ? Describe the skull — the 
spinal column in man — in birds — in reptiles and fishes. What atti- 
tude is peculiar to man ? Describe the ribs — the sternum. Describe 
Plate XIX. Describe the bones of the arm— the hand — the foot in 
quadrupeds — in man. What arrangement in quadrupeds prevents the 
jar from extending to the body ? What are the muscles ? On v/hat 
does the energy of muscular contraction depend 1 How do the muscles 
act on the bones ? Explain Fig. 61. How does exercise affect the 
muscles ? In what animals is the energy of muscular contraction 
greatest ? How is the body in fishes propelled through the water 1 
How is the stroke of the whale made ? How is progression effected 
in serpents ? What is flying 1 How are birds adapted to flying 1 
What is walking? — running?^ — trotting? — leaping? In what does 
the voice consist ? What animals are said to be mute ? How do in- 
sects produce sounds ? How is sound produced in air-breathing ani- 
mals ? Describe the vocal organ in birds — in man. How is the ten- 
sion of the vocal cords regulated ? What is generally the cause of loss 
of voice ? What is said of the power of producing articulate sounds ? 



OUESTIONS TO APPENDIX. 



THE AIR WE BREATHE. 

1. What is the height of the air around the earth ? What is its 
pressure on every square inch of the earth's surface? 2. What are 
the constituents of the air ? 3. What is oxygen ? When it combines 
rapidly with any substance, what does it produce ? 4. What effect does 
it have on animals to breathe pure oxygen ? How is man dependent 
on oxygen ? How does it affect the blood ? 5. How does oxygen 
affect the respiration and circulation ? 

6. For what is nitrogen useful ? Does it support combustion or 
animal life ? Why not ? 

7. What is carbonic acid ? 8. What are the effects of breathing: 
one per cent, of carbonic acid 7 — three or four ?— six or seven ? ten ? 
How are persons affected who confine themselves in apartments con- 
taining only a small excess of carbonic acid ? How does it increase 
the liability to consumption ? 9. How is carbonic acid formed '? What 
per cent, of the respired air is carbonic acid ? How much per day ? 
10. How much carbonic acid escapes from the skin daily ? What re- 
markable fact ? 11. How much v/atery vapor is the respired air found 
to contain ? Is this vapor pure water ? What causes the fetid odor 
in the breath of some persons 1 What increases this odor ? 

12. What is said of the natural excretions of the skin ? — of the 
amount of impurities which pass off from it ? What is a general es- 
timate of the amount of the daily excretions of an adult ? What are 
the excretions composed of ? What causes the peculiar odor of per- 
spiration ? 13. Give the total quantity of impurities which are daily 
given off by an adult. According to Dr. Lee, how much air does 
each person render unfit for respiration every minute ? 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 53 

VENTILATION. 

14. What is said of ignorance in regard to ventilation ? 15. What 
is the effect of breathing impure air ? What is the condition of air 
which has been breathed over and over again in our parlors, school- 
rooms, &c. ? 16. What is a common cause of typhus fever ? Where 
do typhus fever, dysentery and the cholera take their origin ? What 
is indicated by the countenance in the spring ? 

17. What heating apparatus was used till within the last half cen- 
tury 1 What is said of it ? 18. What is said of an open fire as a 
ventilator ? What objection to an open fire ? 19. How does an open 
fire compare with an airtight stove ? 20. What is said of hot-air fur- 
naces and ventilating stoves ? Is this system of heating perfect ? Why 
not? 21. What is the temperature of air as it is delivered from most 
hot-air furnaces ? How may this objection be obviated ? 22. What 
method of ventilation is the best ? 23. Repeat the rules for ven- 
tilation. 

DIET. 

30. How does man difier from other animals in regard to diet 1 
How are other animals directed in the selection of food ? How is 
man endowed ? How should he select his food ? 31. What circum- 
stances should influence the choice of food ? 32. How do the con- 
stituent elements of the body vary at different periods of life ? What 
predominates in middle life ? — in the child ? What is the condition in 
the aged? 

33. What dissimilarity exists in different individuals of the same 
age ? To what should each person adapt his diet ? 34. What do the 
inhabitants of cold climates require ? On what do the inhabitants of 
tropical climates subsist ? 35. What modification of food is required 
in temperate climates ? What would be the effect of indulging in 
summer in a diet which might be appropriate in winter? What 
should each person possess ? 36. In what proportion are different 
substances nutritious ? From what source do animals derive the ele- 
ments of their growth ? On what does the nutritive value of differ- 
ent substances depend ? 

37. What is said of milk ? 38. What elements does milk contain ? 
39. What is said of fish ? — of salmon and eels, and of haddock, sole, 
flounder, cod and turbot ? 40. How is the digestibility offish diminish- 
ed ? When may a fish diet be employed ? At what season of the year 



54 COMPANION TO 

is fish best adapted to the wants of the body ? 41. What is said of 
oysters ? 42. When are fish and oysters unsafe articles of diet 1 
43. What is said of lobsters 7 

44. What is said of meat ? 45. Which are most digestible, young 
meats or old ? 46. How does the vegetable kingdom compare with 
the animal in the number and variety of its ahments ? What are the 
nutritive principles in vegetables ? 47. What essential elements are 
to be found in abundance in vegetables ? What examples of animals 
that live exclusively on animal — and on vegetable food 1 What varia- 
tion in the digestive organs of the two classes ? What is man in 
structure and habits ? 48. What instances are given of an exclusive 
diet of each 1 49. What is the universal preference of mankind ? 

50e What is said of ripe fruits ? How are they regarded by most 
city physicians ? Under what circumstances are fruits dangerous 1 
Of what are the injurious results the consequence? 51. Under what 
circumstances may fruit and vegetables be regarded as safe 1 How 
are children afiected by fruit ? What caution should children ob- 
serve ? What is said of orange-peel, and the skins and stones of 
cherries, plums and grapes ? — of cucumbers, beets, green potatoes, and 
green fruit ? 

52. Of what importance is water ? What per cent, of the blood is 
water ? What portion of the whole body is water 1 What purposes 
does water accomplish in the human body ? 53. How does water 
compare with other drinks ? 54. Has nature offered any substitute 
for water ? 55. What is the effect of water on fires ? 

56. What substances are naturally difficult of digestion ? What 
circumstances render the digestive process more easy ? How does the 
flesh of young animals compare with others in digestibility ? What 
circumstance facilitates digestion '? 57. How does the art of cooking 
affect the digestibility of food ? 58. What is said of boihng 1 — 59. of 
roasting ? 60. of frying ? 61. of pastry ? — of different articles com- 
pounded together ? 63. How does the rapidity of digestion vary ac- 
cording to Dr. Beaumont ? 64. What is said of variety of food '? 65. 
Is a great variety at the same meal beneficial ? 66, How is the diet 
of each individual to be determined ? 

THE TEETH. 

65*. To what are good teeth indispensable ? What is said of the mat- 
ter which is constantly exuding from decayed teeth ? Whats ubstances 
collect in the cavities of decayed teeth ? 66*. Why do the teeth often 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 55 

decay so early ? 67. How does an accumulation af foreign substances 
between and around the teeth cause decay? 68. Does the natural use 
of the teeth cause their decay ? 69. Where does decay usually com- 
mence? 70. What is the secret of preserving the teeth? 71. How 
may the teeth be kept clean ? 72. What should be done when decay 
commences ? 

EXERCISE. 

73. W"hat is said of the importance of exercise ? — of strength ? 
What is ultimately the condition of those who live without exercise ? 
74. For what are the muscles designed? How does muscular action 
alFect the blood, and the vital changes which take place in the growth 
and nutrition of the body ? 75. What are the advantages which arise 
from exercise? 76. Why are the consequences of neglecting exercise 
not seen and felt immediately ? What organ is most likely to become 
diseased first ? 77. How can we secure the greatest benefit from ex- 
ercise? What exercise will be found most useful ? 78. Why should 
there be a variety of exercise ? What will be the condition of the 
muscles that are not exercised ? 79. What do we need besides exer- 
cise ? How may the laborer or mechanic suffer ? — How may the 
physician suffer ? What do all persons require ? 80. What is said 
of manual labor? — of field sports, games, &c. ? 81. How is journey- 
ing most beneficial ? 82. What is said of horseback riding ? 83. 
What are gymnastic exercises ? How are the muscles affected by this 
kind of exercise ? 84. What is calisthenics ? 85. How should gym-" 
nastic or calisthenic exercises be practised at first ? What caution is 
to be observed after taking this kind of exercise ? 86. What is said 
of walking? — How should w-alking be practised? 87. What are the 
advantages of collecting specimens for exercise ? 88. When is the 
best time for taking exercise ? 



USE OF THE EYES. 

89. What is said of the organ of vision ? 90. For what special 
purpose rs the eye formed ? How is it adapted to viewing objects ? 
What objection to long continued application of the eyes to small ob- 
jects ? 91. Why is artificial light more liable to prove injurious to 
the eyes than daylight ? 

92. In what rays is artificial light deficient ? When are the eyes 



56 COMPANION TO 

most liable to be injured by artificial light ? 93. What should be the 
position of the light? 94. At what hour are the eyes often injured? 
Why are the eyes more liable to be injured at this hour? 95. Why 
do the eyes require a short season of rest between daylight and dark ? 
96. What is said of weak eyes ? How are weak eyes to be man- 
aged. Eepeat rule first — second — third — fourth — fifth. 

BATHING. 

102. What is said of the antiquity of the practice of bathing? 
What ancient nations practised ablutions ? How were the bathing 
establishments of the Romans constructed ? How do the English and 
Americans of the present day compare with other nation^ in their 
habits of cleanliness ? 103. What evils arise from habits of uncleanli- 
ness ? 104. Is ablution a necessity or a mere luxury that can be dis- 
pensed with? 105. What is said of the pleasure of bathing? 106. 
How was water regarded by the ancients ? 107. How is water ap- 
plied to the skin ? 108. What is the temperature of a cold bath ? — a 
tepid bath ? — a warm bath ? 109. How may a cold bath be applied ? 
110. What is said of the plunge bath? — of swimming? 111. What 
is a douche? 112. How may a shower bath be applied? What ob- 
jection to shower baths as they are often constructed ? What are the 
efiects of the shower bath when properly managed ? How should the 
shower be regulated? 113. Describe the effects of the cold bath. 
When there is not a healthy reaction, what are its effects ? What per- 
sons are liable to be injured by cold bathing ? 

On what does the ability to practise cold bathing depend ? How 
should the bather commence at first ? 114. What are the effects of 
the tepid bath ? 115. When is the best time for a cold bath ? What 
objection to bathing after a full meal? 116. How long should a cold 
bath continue? 117. What are the effects of the warm bath? How 
does the hot bath act? 118. What is a water bath? 119. What is a 
transition bath ? How is it practised in Russia ? 120. When may a 
vapor bath be taken ? 121. How is the frequency of bathing to be 
determined ? How often should children be bathed ? — persons in full 
health ? What are the advantages of daily bathing ? 

CLOTHING. 

122. What relation has the dress to the character of men ? How 
do different persons dress ? On what does our personal appearance 



CLASS-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. 57 

depend ? What is the effect of indifference to the customs and habits 
of others in respect to dress ? How is the fop esteemed ? 123. What 
style of dress is most to be commended ? What is more important 
than personal appearance ? 124. What kind of clothing do we require 
during summer ? 125. What is the object to be sought in winter 
clothing '? 126. What is said of woollen ?— of silk ?— of fur ? What 
objections to fur ? 

127. On what should the amount of clothing depend ? 128. When 
is the greatest amount of clothing required ? 129. On what other cir- 
cumstances should the amount of clothing depend ? 130. When is it 
necessary to put on extra clothing ? W^hat is said of the habit of 
^'"bundling up^^? 131. What are the benefits derived from under- 
garments ? 132. Of what importance is the form and size of gar- 
ments ? How should the garments be made ? What objections to 
tight garments ? 133. At what period of life is the folly of following 
jfeshion most apparent 1 What are the objections to dressing children 
with their arms and necks bare ? 

134. What organs are exposed by wearing low dresses ? 

BLEEDING. 

135. How may bleeding be caused? 136. How may we know 
whether bleeding is from a vein or an artery ? 137. Plow may arte- 
rial bleeding be arrested ? 



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the use of Schools and Academies; it is the result of long experience, 
of an eminently successful Teacher, and will be found to possess many 
|)eculiar merits. 

At a regular meeting of the Board of Fducatioji of Rochester, held June 13, 1853, 
the following resolution was unanimously adopted : 

" Resolved, That CovelFs Digest of English Grammar be substituted for TVells^ 
Grammar, as a Text-Book in the public schools of this city, to take effect at the com- 
mencement of the next school year." 

Extract from the 3Iinutes of a Regular Meeting of the Board of Education of 
Troy, May Zlst, 1853. 

"Mr. Jones, from Committee on text-books, and school librarias, moved, that Bul- 
lion's English Grammar be stricken from the list of text-books, and Covell's be substi- 
tuted. —Passed." 

From forty-four Teachers of Public Schools, Pittsburg, Fa. 

"The undersigned have examined ' CovelFs Digest of English Grammar,' and are of 
opinion that in the justness of its general views, the excellence of its style, the brevity, ac- 
curacy, and perspicuity of its definitions and rules, the numerous examples and illustra- 
tions, the adaption of its synthetical exercises, the simplicity of its method of analysis, 
and in the plan of its arrangement, this work surpasses any other grammar now before 
the public ; and that in all respects it is most admirably adapted to the use of schools 
and academies." 

From all the Teachers of Public Schools of tlie City of Alleghany, Pa. 
" We, the undersigned, Teachers of Alleghany city, having carefully examined Mr. 
* Coveirs Digest of English Grammar,' and impartially compared it with other gram- 
mars now in use. are fully satisfied that, while it is in no respect inferior to others, it is 
in very many respects much superior. "While it possesses all that is necessary for the ad- 
vanced student, and much that is not found in other grammars, it is so simplified as to 
adapt it to the capacity of the youngest learner. We are confident that much time and 
labor will be saved, and greater iniprovement secured to our pupils in the study of this 
science, by Its introduction into our schools ; hence we earnestly recommend to the Boards 
of Directors of this city, its adoption as a uniform text-book upon this science in the 
schools under their direction." 

From John J. Wolcott, A. M., Pr. and Supt. 9th Ward School, Pittsburg, Pa. 

" ' Covell's Digest of English Grammar' not only evinces the most unceasing labor, the 
most extensive research, the most unrelaxing effort, and the most devoted self-sacrificing 
study of its author, but It is the most complete, the most perfect, and, to me, the most 
satisfactory exposition of English Grammar that has come to my notice. It appears to 
me that every youth aspiring to become master of the English language, from the rudi- 
mental principles to the full, round, beautiful, faultless, perfect period, will mako this vol- 
ume his ' vade mecum.' " 

14 



J 



D. APPLETON ^ CO,, PUBLISHERS. 



EXPOSITION OF THE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

BY JOHN MULLIGAN, A. M. 

Large 12mo. 574 pages. $1 50. 

This work is a compreliensive and complete system of English 
Grammar, embracing not only all that has been developed by the later 
philologists, but also the results of years of study and research on the 
pait of its author. One great advantage of this book is its admirable 
arrangement. Instead of proceeding at once to the dry details which 
are distasteful and discouraging to the pupil, Mr. M. commences by 
viewing the sentence as a whole, analyzing it into its proper parts, and 
exhibiting their connection ; and, after having thus parsed the sentence 
logically, proceeds to consider the individual words that compose it, in 
al] their grammatical relations. This is the natural order ; and expe- 
rience proves that the arrangement here followed not only imparts 
additional interest to the subject, but gives the pupil a much clearer 
insight into it, and greatly facilitates his progress. 

From Dr. James W. Alexander. 

" I thank you for the^pportunity of perusing your work on the structure of the 
English language. It strikes me as being one of the most valuable contributions to this 
important branch of literature. The mode of investigation is so unlike what appears 
in our ordinary compilations, the reasoning is so sound, and the results are so satisfac- 
tory and so conformable to the genius and great authorities of our mother tongue, that 
I propose to recur to it again and again." 

Extractfrom aletterfrom E. C. Benedict, Esq., President of the Board of Educa- 
tion of the City of 2^ew York, 

" I have often thought our language needed some work in which the principles of 
grammatical science and of the structure of the language, philosophically considered, 
were developed and applied to influence and control the usus and con&uedo of Horace 
and Quintilian, which seem to me to have been too often the principal source of sole- 
cisms, irregularity and corruption. In this point of view, I consider your work a valu- 
able and appropriate addition to the works on the language." 

From Wm. Horace Webster, President of the Free Academy, Xew York. 

"The exposition of the grammatical structure of the English language by Professor 
Mulligan, of this city, is a work, in my opinion, of great merit, and well calculated to 
impart a thorough and critical knowledge of the grammar of the English language. 

" No earnest English student can fail to profit by the study of this treatise, yet it is 
designed more particulary for minds somewhat maturer, and for pupils who are capable 
and have a desire, to comprehend the principles and learn the philosophy of their own 
tongue." 

15 



D. APPLETON ^ CO., PUBLISHERS 



DICTIOIS^ARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

BY ALEXAJSTDER EEID, A. M. 

12mo. 572 pages. Price $1 00. 

This work, which is designed for schools, contains the Pronunciation 
and Explanation of all English words authorized by eminent writers. 

A Vocabulary of the roots of English words. 

An Accented List of Greek, Latin, and Scripture proper names. 

An Appendix, showing the pronunciation of nearly 3,000 of the 
most important Geographical names. 

It is printed on fine paper, in clear type, strongly bound. 

And is unquestionably one of the best dictionaries for the school- 
room extant. 

From C. S. Henry, Professor of Philsosoj)hy, History^ and Belles- Lettres, in the 
University of the City of New York. 

"Reid's Dictionary of til e English Language is an admirable book for the use of 
schools. Its plan combines a greater number of desirable conditions for such a work, 
than any with which I am acquainted; and it seems to me to be executed in general 
with great judgment, fidelity, and accuracy.*' 

From He]nTvY Eeed, Professor of English Literature in the University of Pennsyl' 

vania. 

"Eeid's Dictionary of the English Language appears to have been compiled upon 
sound principles, and with judgment and accuracy. It has the nierit, too, of combining 
much more than is usually looked for in dictionaries cf small size, and will, I believe, 
be found excellent as a convenient manual for general reference, and also for various 
purposes of education." 



GRAHAM^S ENGLISH SYNONYMS, 
CLASSIFIED AND EXPLAINED; 

WITH PRACTICAL EXERCISES. DESIGNED FOR SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE TUITI0>% 
WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND ILLUSTRATIVE AUTHORITIES. 

BY HENRY REED, LL. D. 
1 Yol. 12mo. Price $1 00. 

This is one of the best books published in the department of lan- 
guage, and will do much to arrest the evil of making too common use 
of inappropriate words. The work is well arranged for classes, and 
can be made a branch of common school study. 

It is admimbly arranged. The S3^nonyms are treated with reference 

to their character, as generic and specific ; as active and passive ; as 

positive and negative ; and as miscellaneous synonyms. 

16 



D. APPLE TON §• CO., PUBLISHERS, 



HAl^D-BOOK OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

BY G. R. LATHAM, M. D., F. R. 8. 

12mo. 400 pages. Price $1 25. 

This work is designed for the use of students in the University and 
High Schools. 

"His work is rigidly scientific, and hence possesses a rare value. With the wide- 
spreading gi'owth of the Anglo-Saxon dialect, the immense present and prospective 
power of those with whom this is their ' mother tongue,' such a treatise must be counted 
alike interesting and useful.'*"' — Watchman and Reflector. 

"A work of great research, much learning, and to every thinking scholar it will be a 
book of study. The Germanic origin of the English language, the afiinities of the Eng- 
lish with other languages, a sketch of the alphabet, a minute investigation of the etymo- 
logy of the language, &c., of great value to every philologist.'' — Observer. 



HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 

BY WILLIAM SPALDOG, A. M. 

PROFESSOR OF LOGIC, RHETORIC, AND METAPHYSICS, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS. 

12nio. 413 pages. Price §1 00. 

The above v/ork, which is just published, is offered as a Text-book 
for the use of advanced Schools and Academies. It traces the literary 
progress of the nation from its dawn in Anglo-Saxon times, down to 
the pi'esent day. Commencing at this early period, it is so constructed 
as to introduce the reader gradually and easily to studies of this kind. 
Comparatively little speculation is presented, and those literary monu- 
ments of the earlier dates, which were thought most worthy of atten 
tion, are described with considerable fulness and in an attractive 
manner. In the subsequent pages, more frequent and sustained efforts 
are made to arouse reflection, both by occasional remarks on the rela- 
tions between intellectual culture and the other elements of society, 
and by hints as to the theoretical laws on which criticism should be 
founded. The characteristics of the most celebrated modern works are 
analyzed at considerable length. 

The manner of the author is remarkably plain and interesting, 

almost compelling the reader to linger over his pages with unwearied 

attention. 

IT 



D, APPLE TON j- CO., PUBLISHERS, 



CLASS-BOOK OF CHEMISTRY. 

BY EDWAED L. YOUMANS. 
12mo. 840 Pages. Price 15 Cents. 

Every page of thie book bears evidence of the author's superior 
ability of perfectly conforming his style to the capacit}^ of youth. This 
is a merit rarely possessed by the authors of scientific school-books, 
and will be appreciated by every discriminating teacher. It is espe 
cially commended by the eminently practical manner in which each 
subject is presented. Its illustrations are drawn largely from the phe- 
nomena of daily experience, and the interest of the pupil is speedily 
awakened by the consideration that Chemistry is not a matter belong- 
ing exclusively to physicians and professors. 

FroTTi Peof. Wm. H. Bigelow, Principal of Clinton Street Academy. 
" The eminontly practical character of the Class-Book treating of the familiar ap- 
plications of the science, is in my opinion its chief excellence, and gives it a value faf 
superior to any other work now before the public." 

From David Syme, A. M., formerly Principal qf the Mathematical Department,, 
and Lecturer in Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and Physiology, in Columbia Col, 

" Mr. YouMA^'s : Dear Sir, — I have carefully examined your Class-Book on Chem« 
istry, and, in my opinion, it is better adapted for use in schools and academies than any 
other work on the subject that has fallen under my observation. 

" I hope that the success of your Class-Book will be proportionate to its merits, and 
that your efforts to diffuse the knowledge of Chemistry will b« duly appreciated by the 
friends of education." 

"Either for Schools or for general reading, we know of no elementary work on 
Chemistry which in every respect pleases us so much as this." — Com, Adtertiser* 



CHART OF CHEMISTRY. 

BY EDWAED L. YOUMANS. 

" Youmans' Chart of Chemistry" accomplishes for the first time, for 
chemistry, what maps and charts have for geography, astronomy, geo- 
logy, and the other natural sciences, by presenting a new and admir- 
able method of illustrating this highly interesting and beautiful science. 
Its plan is to represent chemical compositions to the e^^e by colored 
diagrams, the areas of which express proportional quantities, 

ABOYE, m ATLAS FORM, ^-early Heady. 

18 . . 



D. APPLETON ^ CO., PUBLISHERS. 



FIEST LESSONS 11^ GEOMETRY. 

BY ALPHEUS CKOSBY. 
18 mo. Price 38 Cents. 

This little mathematical volume is founded upon the model of Col- 
burn's First Lessons in Arithmetic, and abounds in illustrative ques- 
tions both general and numerical, being an attempt to take advantage 
of their juvenile conceptions of place, form, and magnitude, which the 
youthful mind conceives most easily and readily, and to give to them 
a scientific form, and make them the foundation of elevated and accu 
rate attainments— thus rendering Geometrical truths simpler and plainer, 
and bringing them within the reach of young children without sacri- 
ficing any of that strictness of demonstration which is the peculiar 
beauty of this science. That the author has been eminently practical 
and successful in this attempt will be seen by reference to the book. 



FIRST LESSONS IN BOOK-KEEPING, 

SINGLE AND DOUBLE ENTRY. 

BY JOS. H. PALMER, A.M. 

12mo. Price 19 Cents. 

This little volume is progressively and logically arranged; each 
principle is clearly set forth by itself and illustrated, 1st, by "Slate 
Exercises," and 2d, by '* Blank-Book Exercises." The practice is 
thoroughly taught by numerous exercises, in which the pupil opens 
the accounts and conducts and closes them himself. 

BLANKS ACCOMPANYING THE SAME. 19 cents. 



TREATISE ON BOOK-KEEPING. 

BY JOS. H. PALMER, A. B. 
12mo. Price 63 c. 

From Jos. McKeen, Supt. of Schools of the City of New York. ^ 

" The arrangement of this work admirably combines the scientific and practical in a 
system of instruction which appears to be happily matured. It is well considered, and 
has in it more of original adaptation than is to be ordinarily met with in works upon 
this subject. I recommend it to the favor of business men and teachers of book- 
keeping." 

21 



X). APPLETON §- CO., PUBLISHERS. 



ARITHMETICAL SERIES. 

BY GEO. E. PERKINS, LL. D 

PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. 18mo. 160 pages. Price 21 Cents. 

This work is in two parts. 1st, Intellectual Arithmetic, and 2d, 
Primary Written Arithmetic. It will be found to contain — 

A familiar treatment of the ground rules, and an informal and ex- 
tended explanation of the principles of Decimals, in connection with 
exercises in Federal Money. 

ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC. 16mo. 350 pages. Price 42 Cents. 

This work is peculiarly adapted to discipline the minds of those 
who study it 

No principle is left unelucidated, and new light is thro-tvn upon 
many heretofore imperfectly illustrated. 

The subject of Proportion and Ratio is presented with peculiar 
force ; as also, in Equation of Payments, the method of finding the 
Cash Balance. 

The method of Extraction of the Cube Root is greatly preferable 
to the old method. It is far more concise and more comprehensive ; 
saving nearly half the labor, and being applicable, with little varia- 
tion, to the extraction of all arithmetical roots. 

PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC. 12mo. Cloth sides. 854 pages. Price 
62 Cents. 
The Practical Arithmetic, containing about 4000 examples, is sub- 
stantially the same as the ''Elementary," and is designed for the use 
of such institutions and schools as require more examples than are 
given in that work. The almost universal expression of those who 
have used it is, that "it is the best and most complete arithmetic 
published," 

KEY TO THE PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC. 12mo. Cloth sides. 
324 pages. Price ^75 Cents. 
This work, which is just published, contains complete and full 
solutions to nearly 4000 examples, and is designed for the use of teachers 
only. 

HIGHER ARITHMETIC. 12mo. Sheep. Price 15 Cents. 
This work is what its name purports, and develops Arithmetical 
principles higher than are usually found in other school Arithmetics, 
find fully explains the science of numbers and their application. 

22 



D, APPLET ON §- CO., PUBLISHERS. 



RECOMMENDATIONS OF PERKINS* ARITHMETICAL SERIES. 

From Prof. Cook and De. Campbell, laie of Albany Academy. 

"From all who have used the Elementary Arithmetic here, both teachers and 
scholars, we hear but one opinion, and that is most favorable. It is an excellent text 
book, and we have no hesitation in recommending it to parents and pupils." 

From J. Watson Williams, Clerh of Board of School Commissioners of 
City of Ulica. 

"This will certify that Perkins' Elementary and Higher Arithmetics have been 
adopted by the Board of School Commissioners, as text-books to be used in the Public 
Schools of this city.'" 

From T. M. Eice, Supt. of Schools, City of Buffalo. 
" Perkins' Elementary and Practical Arithmetics are exclusively used in the Public 
Schools of this city -with entire satisfaction to both teachers and pupils." 

From H. B. Has well, Sec. of Board of Commissioners of Public Schools 
of the City of Albany. 

" Perkins"* Primary and Elementary Arithmetics were unanimously adopted by the 
Board of School Commissioners of this city in the summer of 1S51, and have since then 
been used to the exclusion of all others." 

*;}:* In July, 1852, Perkins' Arithmetics were unanimously adopted for the use of all 
the Public Schools of New Orleans. 

From Wm. Hall, Clerk of Board of Education^ Syracuse. 
At a special meeting of the Board, held the 23d of September^ 1853, it was unani- 
mously "Kesolved/That Perkins' Practical Arithmetic be substituted in the place ol 
Greenleaf s National, in the Public Schools in this city." 

From I. W. Jackson, A. M., Prof of 3fat?iematics in Union College. 
" The Higher Arithmetic is a work of an order superior to any that has been issued 
from the American press. Indeed, I am acquainted with no work on Arithmetic in 
the English language equal to it. I am confident that its general adoption as a text- 
book, by our seminaries, would be considered by all who feel an interest in the pro- 
motion of the exact sciences, as an omen of good." 

From George P. Williams, Prof of 3fat7i. and Xat. Phil., University of 
Michigan. 

*' After an examination of the last editions of these works, I am prepared to repeat 
the opinion formerly expressed, that they are the best Arithmetics in use, or accessible 
in this part of our country." 

From A. H. Lacklet, Beaver, Penn. 
" Perkins' Arithmetics are books eminently suited to our course of instruction. We 
have tried them, and our pupils seem to think them another great evidence of the just 
popularity of Prof. Perkins. They have been pronounced superior to all others. We 
shall use them from this time forth." 

From the Literary World of May 12, 1849. 
"This is by far the most scientific Elementary Arithmetic we have seen. There ia 
a neatness of arrangement, a dispersion of matter, an accuracy and force of statement, 
which prepare the learner from the onset, for the handling of the higher mathematics." 

23 



D. APPLETON §• CO., PUBLISHERS. 



MATHEMATICAL WORKS. 

BY GEO. E. PERKINS, LL, D. 
ELEMENTS OF ALGEBRA. 12mo. sheep. Price 75 Cents. 
Designed as an introduction to the author's ''Treatise on Algebra,'' 

TREATISE 0^ ALGEBRA 8vo. sheep, 420 pp. Price, $1 50. 

Adapted to the wants of advanced schools and colleges. It will be 
found to contain a full and complete development of all the various 
subjects usually taught in our colleges, including a demonstration and 
application of tlie Theorem of Sturm. 

The present edition has been carefully revised and considerably 
enlarged. One entire chapter on the subject of Continued Fractions, 
treated in a general manner, has been added. The subject of IRecur- 
RiNG Series has been rewritten and simplified, and many other im- 
portant changes have been made. 

ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY, with Practical Applications. 12mo. 
Sheep. Price $1. 

The following from the author's preface will give the teacher an 
idea of the design of the work: 

"We have found from experience in teaching, that, as a general 
thing, beginners in the study of Geometry consider it as a dry^ unin 
teresting science. They have but little difficulty in following the de- 
monstration, and arriving at a full conviction of its truth; but they 
ask, what if the proposition is true ? what use can be made of it ? 

'' Now, to meet these difficulties we have, in the body of the work, 
added in a smaller sized type, such remarks, suggestions, and practical 
applications as we have found to interest the pupil." 

PLANE TRIGOIs^OMETRY, and its application to Mensuration and 
Land Surveying, accompanied wnn all the necessary Logarithmic 
AND Trigonometric Tables. 8vo. sheep. Price $1 50. 

The work will be found as simple and practical as the nature of 

the different subjects will admit, and differs in many respects from 

other similar works. The chapter upon the division of land is new 

and highly interesting to all lovers of the science. Great care hns 

been taken to have the tables accurate ; they are from the old style of 

figures, which are less fatiguing to the eye than those in common use. 

24 



D. APPLE TON j- CO., PUBLISHERS. 



RECOMMEND ATIOIS^S OF PERKlIs^S' MATHEMATICAL SERIES. 



From G. B. Docharty, Frof. of Math., Free Academy, isFeio York. 

"I have examined with more than ordinary interest a 'Treatise on Algebra' by 
George'R. Perkins, L.L. D., and also a ' Treatise on Plane Trigonometry,' by the same 
autlior. I consider them both ^Yorks of great merit The 'Treatise on Algebra,' as a 
text-book, has no superior. Its arrangement is excellent ; the rules explicit, the expla- 
nations lucid, and the style in which it is written is well adapted to lead the tyro rap- 
idly to a skilful knowledge of the higher analysis. 

" The Treatise on Plane Tiigonomc try is just such a manual as the pupil requires 
It contains every thing necessary for a correct understanding of the principles of the 
science, and its practical application to the division of land. It will give me great 
pleasure at all times to recommend either of the above-named works to the teachers 
and students of my acquaintance." 

From Professors Jackson and Potter, of Union College. 

" I have examined Prof. Perkins' Elements of Algebra. It is a work in which the 
peculiar merits of the French and English systems are combined; the practical and 
theoretical being made to illustrate each other. It is consequently better adapted to 
elementary instruction in our seminaries than any foreign work I have seen. Indeed, 
it is equally fitted for the common school and the college, as the elementary principles 
are exhibited sufficiently in detail and with admirable clearness, and the higher parts 
of the science are fully and ably discussed." 
From, B. F. Joslin, Prof, of Math., a/nd Nat. Philosophy, in the City of Boston. 

"The treatise on Algebra by George E. Perkins, is evidently the work of an expe- 
rienced and judicious teacher. The illustrations possess in a good degi-ee the merits of 
simplicity and conciseness, whilst th^j prominence given to important theorems and 
rules, facilitates both recollection and reference." 

From B. W. W. Eedfield, Asst. Prof, of Mathematics, K. Y. University. 

" I have examined, with much satisfaction, Perkins' Mathematical Series, and be- 
lieve the treatise is inferior to none in point of clearness, accuracy and logical develop- 
ment. For his Elementary work on Algebra, the author deserves the thanks of teach- 
ers. He seems to have been the first to discover that, even in the education of children, 
a course of conclusive reasoning may with profit supersede the old system of dogmatical 
dictation." 
From J. Zehnek, Prof, of Mathematics, College of St. Michael and All Angels. 

" It contains in a condensed form all the principles of Plane Trigonometry, that wtl> 
most likely be needed in its application to the practical purposes of life. They art 
explained and demonstrated in a plain and concise manner, and the various examples 
and problems solved and unsolved are well calculated to make the student familiar with 
those principles, and expert in the application of them. The practical bearing of the 
book will, no doubt, make it a useful manual to the surveyor and engineer, particularly 
to those who have no opportunity to consult more extensive works on that subject, and 
wish to obtain the most necessary knowledge of it in a short time." 
From Wm. J. Rolfe, recent Principal of Day Academy, Wrentham, Mass. 

"I have put two classes through 'Perkins' Trigonometry,' and do not hesitate to 
place it very far above any similar work that I have ever taught. I do not believe 
there is a book before the public, which contains half as much practical matter on the 
subject of surveying. I have taken every oppoiininity to recommend it to my fellow 
teachers, and have no doubt that some of them will adopt it." 

25 



D. APPLE TON ^ CO., PUBLISHERS. 



EASY LESSONS IN LANDSCAPE DRAWING. 

IN SIX PARTS. 
B Y F. N. O T I S. 

Price, Parts 1, 2 & 3, eacli 25 Cents, 4, 5 & 6, each 37 Cents. 

These books are executed in a most beautiful and pleasing manner 
The author has presented a series of lessons which will guide the 
learner in an easy, systematic and intelligent manner, from simple lines 
through the intricacies of foliage, light, shade, and perspective, to the 
lessons which nature on every hand presents to her loving students. 
The peculiarities of different kinds of foliage, and the most approved 
methods of presenting them, are fully dwelt upon. 

The subject of perspective, together with its practical application, 
is treated in a manner which cannot fail of being comprehended by all 
who will give them a proper degree of attention. The size of each book 
being about that of an ordinary sheet of foolscap paper, the author has 
been able to exhibit the peculiarities of every surface represented, 
enabling the pupil to see the effect, and the method by which that 
effect is produced. 

Each book is accompanied by such directions and explanations, in 
regard to the method of execution, as will enable those desirous of 
improving, to progress without other instruction or assistance than 
their own observations and reflections will naturally suggest. 

ABOVE, BOUND IN ONE VOLUME, PRICE $2 25. 



DRAWING BOOKS OF ANIMALS. 

IN FIVE PARTS. 

BY F. N. T I B. 

Price, Part InTos. 1 & 2, each, 25 Cents. No. 3, 3H Cents. Nos. 4 & 5, 

each 60 Cents. 

These books are of the same size as the *' Landscape Drawing," and 
as beautifully executed. They are designed to present to the learner 
the easiest and most instructive progression from the simple to the more 
difficult exercises. 

ABOVE, BOUND IN ONE VOLUME, |2 25. 
26 




Library of Congress 
Branch Bindery, 1902 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




005 526 392 9 






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